A Selected Chronological Bibliography of Biology and Medicine
Part 3A
1885—1902
Compiled by
James Southworth Steen, Ph.D.
Delta State
University
Dedicated to
my loving family
This document celebrates those secondary authors and laboratory
technicians without whom most of this great labor of discovery would have
proved impossible.
Please
forward any editorial comments to: James S. Steen, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus,
jsteen08@bellsouth.net
1885
Oskar Kreis (CH) helped pioneer the use of spinal anesthesia when
he reported the administration of cocaine in the subarachnoid space of six
pregnant women with complete cervical dilation (937). Cocaine had previously been
shown to be effective for spinal anesthesia by August Bier in 1898. See, above
Richard von Steinbüchel (AT) pioneered in the use of opioids for
labor analgesia. He described the technique called the "twilight
sleep", which consisted of using systemic morphine and scopolamine (1711). Studies in subsequent years
from two German doctors, Carl Gauss (DE) and Kronig Bernhardt (DE), popularized
this technique. It does not promote a complete analgesia, but the scopolamine
enhances the morphine and induces amnesia.
Joseph
P. O’Dwyer (US), in 1885, introduced endotracheal intubation for treatment of obstructed
larynx in patients with diphtheria. Not only did O’Dwyer describe the
method for the procedure, but he developed instruments to perform it. Within a
short time, intubation largely replaced tracheotomy in treatment of diphtheria
with airway blockage (1210).
Franz Kuhn (DE) introduced orotracheal intubation (944).
Samuel James Meltzer (DE-US) and John Auer (US) perfected a method
of intra-tracheal intubation to give “continuous respiration without
respiratory movement” (535; 536; 1099). The
clinical introduction of Kuhn’s, and Meltzer and Auer's methods mark the
beginning of modern endotracheal anesthesia.
1886
"… curious to a vice, investigators to the point of cruelty,
with uninhibited fingers for the unfathomable, with teeth and stomachs for the
most indigestible, ready for every feat that requires a sense of acuteness and
acute senses, ready for every venture, thanks to an excess of "free
will," with fore- and back-souls into whose ultimate intentions nobody can
look so easily, with fore- and backgrounds which no foot is likely to explore
to the end; concealed under cloaks of light, conquerors even if we look like
heirs and prodigals, arrangers and collectors from morning till late, misers of
our riches and our crammed drawers, economical in learning and forgetting,
inventive in schemas, occasionally proud of tables of categories, occasionally
pedants, occasionally night owls of work even in broad daylight; yes, when it
is necessary even scarecrows - and today it is necessary; namely, insofar as we
are born, sworn, jealous friends of solitude, of our own most profound,
most midnightly, most middaily solitude: that is the type of man we are, we
free spirits!" Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (DE) characterizing the
"new" philosophers (1193; 1194)
Francis Galton (GB) devised a new useful statistical tool, the
correlation table. It is an excellent tool in applying statistical methods to
many biological problems (638).
Ernst Karl Abbé (DE), working at Zeiss Optical Works, made a
series of lenses that enabled microscopists to resolve structures at the
theoretical limits of the light microscope. This included the apochromatic
objective lens, which he invented. Apochromatic lenses eliminate
both primary and secondary color distortions. He improved the resolution of his
apochromatic oil-immersion objective microscope lenses by using oils, which
match the refractive index of the lens (390).
Ernst August Schulze (CH) and Ernst Steiger (DE) isolated and
named arginine in a precipitate resulting from mixing phosphotungstic acid with
extract of germinating lupine seeds (Lupinus
luteus) (1457; 1458).
Sven G.
Hedin (SE) isolated arginine from horn (760; 761).
Friedrich Koch (DE) discovered xylose when he treated wood gum by
acid hydrolysis (913).
Karl Peters (DE) was the first to describe the diene structure of
linoleic acid (1284).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) introduced the acid hematoxylin stain,
stabilizing the stain and the mordant (alum) with acid (508).
The first notice was made of a tobacco-soapsuds mixture advocated
for aphid control. Lime-sulfur-salt spray was first noted as useful against
scale insects. Hydrocyanic acid gas (HCN), one of most deadly gases known, was
discovered as a fumigant for insect control purposes. Rosin fish-oil soap was
first used as an insecticide for scale control in California (1478).
Friedrich Hermann Hellriegel (DE) and Hermann Wilfarth (DE)
demonstrated the bacterial nature of the root nodules of leguminous plants and
showed that without these nodules the plants were unable to fix nitrogen. A
preliminary report came out in 1886 with the full article following in 1888 (765-768).
Wilhelm His (CH) proposed, "that every
nerve-fiber arises as an offshoot from one single cell. This cell is its embryonic (genetisches),
nutritive, and functional center, and other connexions of the fiber are either
only indirect, or have originated secondarily." (798) He went
on to describe the outgrowth of the axon from the neuroblast in various
vertebrates.
This was essential to the development of the neuron theory, which states that
the neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic unit of the nervous system.
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer (DE) wrote a highly
influential review in which he stated that nerve cells terminate freely with
end arborizations and that the neuron
is the anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system. This is the
coining of the term neuron (1723). This is
one of the germinal ideas necessary to the neuron
theory.
Ludwig Brieger (DE) discovered that some microbes produce and
secrete poisonous substances called toxins (238).
Silas Weir Mitchell (US) and Edward Tyson Reichert (US)
established that snake venom is protein in nature, and demonstrated the
presence of toxic albumins (1134).
Leonard Charles Wooldridge (GB) proposed for the first time that
the prothrombin activator is a protein/phospholipid complex derived from
damaged tissue (1822).
Charles Alexander MacMunn (GB) observed myohematins and
histohematins in representatives of almost all orders of the animal world. He
proposed that these pigments are concerned with internal respiration of the
tissues and organs (1046; 1047). Note: these pigments were later to be
called cytochromes.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (DE) worked with charcoals of blood, and
later of hemin and impure aniline dyes contaminated with iron salts in his
attempt to understand intracellular respiration. He concluded, "…
molecular oxygen reacts with divalent iron, whereby there results a higher
oxidation state of iron. The higher oxidation state reacts with the organic
substance with the regeneration of divalent iron …. Molecular oxygen never
reacts directly with the organic substance." He defined the respiratory
enzyme (atmungsferment) as "…
the sum of all catalytically-active iron compounds present in the cell."
Then went on to say, "The catalytically active substance in hemin-charcoal
is therefore iron, but not iron in any form whatever, but iron bound to
nitrogen." (1727-1729)
David Keilin (PL-GB) made spectral analysis of pigments he found
in the muscles of horse bot flies (Gasterophilus
intestinalis) and in yeast. He realized that they exhibited a four-banded
absorption spectrum just like the myohematins and histohematins observed by
Charles Alexander MacMunn (GB). Keilin concluded that the four-banded spectrum
was associated with three separate hemochromogens which he named cytochromes a, b,
and c and assigned them a significant
role as oxidation catalysts in intracellular respiration (893; 894). The 1925
article by Keilin marked the beginning
of studies of what Warburg later called the respiratory chain (atmungskette), many called the electron transfer chain,
and David Green, the electron
transport
chain.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (DE) demonstrated that the oxygen uptake
associated with respiration in yeast is inhibited by carbon monoxide and is a
reversible reaction. He concluded, "… the Atmungsferment (equivalent to Keilin’s cytochrome) is an
iron-pyrrole compound in which the iron is bound to nitrogen, as in hemoglobin."
Warburg did not believe cytochrome and his atmungsferment
to be equivalent (1731).
Otto Heinrich Warburg (DE) and Erwin Paul Negelein (DE) in a
brilliant set of experiments used indirect determination of light absorption
spectra to demonstrate that atmungsferment
(Keilin’s cytochrome) is a porphyrin
with a protein component (1732; 1733). This
enzyme is now called cytochrome oxidase.
David Keilin (PL-GB) realizing that the cytochromes are not
auto-oxidizable considered indophenol
oxidase to be an enzyme capable of catalyzing the oxidation of cytochrome
by oxygen. Later, at the suggestion of Malcolm Dixon (GB) (443), he used
the term cytochrome oxidase to denote
this enzyme, which he viewed as being equivalent to Warburg’s atmungsferment (895).
David Keilin (GB) and Edward Francis Hartree (GB) demonstrated the
existence of the auto-oxidizable cytochrome
a3, which Keilin had previously thought was indophenol oxidase. They noted that it combines with cyanide and
carbon monoxide. Its spectroscopic properties agree with those of Warburg’s atmungsferment (896).
Eijiro Yakushiji (JP) and Kazuo Okunuki (JP) discovered cytochrome
c1 (1838). In 1941,
they placed c1 in the cytochrome chain in the order b-c1-c-a-a3.
Bernard Leonard Horecker (US) and Arthur J. Kornberg (US) found
that cyanide reacts with cytochrome c
(822).
Frederick L. Crane (US), Youssef Hatefi (IR-US), Robert L. Lester
(US), and Christine Widmer (CH) discovered ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) as a new
hydrogen carrier between the primary dehydrogenases
and the electron transfer chain in beef heart mitochondria (354). Note: Without this discovery, progress
on the electron transport chain would have been severely hampered.
Richard Alan
Morton (GB), G.M. Wilson (GB), J.S. Lowe (GB), and W.M.F. Leat (GB) defined
a compound obtained from vitamin A deficient rat liver to be the same as CoQ10.
In their 1957 paper they named it ubiquinone; meaning the ubiquitous quinone (1161-1163).
Donald E. Wolf (US), Carl H. Hoffman (US), Nelson R. Trenner (US),
Byron H. Arison (US), Clifford H. Shunk, (US) Bruce O. Linn (US), James F.
McPherson (US), and Karl August Folkers (US) determined
the precise chemical structure of CoQ10 to be 2,3 dimethoxy-5 methyl-6
decaprenyl benzoquinone, synthesized it, and were the first to produce it by
fermentation (1817).
Frederick L.
Crane (US), Clifford H. Shunk (US), Franklin M. Robinson (US), and Karl August
Folkers (US) showed ubiquinone to be an isoprenoid compound closely related or
identical to coenzyme Q (CoQ) (355).
Frederick L. Crane (US) reported the presence of two coenzyme Q
type molecules and Norman I. Bishop (US) reported a quinone molecule, all of
which are reactive in the light driven electron transport process of isolated
chloroplasts. One of the coenzyme Q molecules and the quinone molecule would
prove to be plastoquinone (179; 353).
Helmut Beinert (US) and Graham Palmer (US) used paramagnetic
resonance (EPR) spectrometry to establish that copper, as well as, iron is
involved in the oxidation of cytochrome c (144).
Humberto Fernández-Morán (VE-SE), Takuzo Oda (JP), Paul V. Blair
(US), and David Ezra Green (US) chracterized a repeating particle associated
with the cristae and the inner membrane of the external envelope in beef heart
mitochondria by correlated electron microscopic and biochemical studies. Many
thousands (c. 104 to 105) of these particles,
disposed in regular arrays, are present in a single mitochondrion. The
repeating particle, called the elementary particle (EP), consists of three
parts: (1) a spherical or polyhedral head piece (80 to 100 A in diameter); (2)
a cylindrical stalk (about 50 A long and 30 to 40 A wide); and (3) a base piece
(40 x 110 A). The base pieces of the elementary particles form an integral part
of the outer dense layers of the cristae. The elementary particles can be seen
in electron micrographs of mitochondria in situ, of isolated
mitochondria, and of submitochondrial particles with a complete electron
transfer chain (571).
Bob F. van Gelder (NL) showed that cytochrome c oxidase takes up four electrons per molecule, one each
into the hemes of cytochrome a and a3 and two into the copper
atoms (1644).
St. Szez Zaleski (DE) and Gustav von Bunge (DE) discovered that
the fetal liver in animals is used as a storage organ for iron (1671; 1850).
Carl Benda (DE) introduced the use of the iron-hematoxylin dye to
histology (151).
Bartolomeo Camillo Emilio Golgi (IT), August H. Forel (CH) and
Fridtjof Nansen (NO) concluded but could not prove that “transmission of a
stimulus without direct continuity is possible” in the sensory organs. They
favored contiguity, not continuity of nerve cells (605; 681; 1173).
Bartolomeo Camillo Emilio Golgi (IT) gave a precise description of
the nerve cell. He distinguished between axons and dendrites and noted that
nerve cells can have extensive protoplasmic branches. He
described the "fine anatomy" of the convolutions located at front
center and top of the occipital cortex (the structures to which contemporary
research had attributed, respectively, motor and sensory function), the cerebellum,
the foot d ' hippocampus, corpus callosum, and olfactory lobes. In addition,
after a first chapter of a general nature on the nerve cell, there follows a
chapter on neuroglia and one on methods of the "black reaction" (681; 685).
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (ES) improved Golgi’s silver-chromate stain
for nerve tissue. Using his reduced silver nitrate technique he worked out the
connections of the cells in the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord and
the complexity of the system. His introduction of a gold chloride-mercury
bichloride technique to demonstrate astrocytes was a monumental contribution as
was his later work on degeneration and regeneration of the nervous system.
Cajal also worked out the structure of the retina of the eye, describing in
detail the major cell types in all three retinal layers and proclaiming that
the nervous system consists entirely of neurons and their processes. He
concluded: "(1) Nervous cells are independent units, they never anastomose
either through their dendritic branches or through nerve fibers emanating from
their axons. (2) Every axis cylinder terminates freely in varicose and flexuous
arborizations…(3) These arborizations are applied either to the body or to the
dendritic branches of other nervous cells establishing connexion by
contiguity…, which is, just as efficacious in transmitting impulses as if there
were real connexion of substance between the neurons. (4) The cell body of the
dendritic branches is as much concerned with conduction of impulses as with
neuronal nutrition. The dendrites carry impulses to the cell body, while axonal
transmission is away from the cell body." He emphasized that the direction
of conduction is from the receptors in the retina, through the horizontal,
bipolar, and amacrine cells of the inner nuclear layer, ultimately to the
ganglion cells, whose axons constitute the optic nerve (1330-1335; 1337).
Max Bielschowsky (DE) began his fundamental studies on the silver
impregnation of nerve fibers. He truly replaced Santiago Ramon y Cajal’s method
on which his was based (173).
Bielschowsky is known as a superior neuropathologist with his contributions in
the study of tuberous sclerosis, amaurotic family idiocy (late infantile
type), Herpes zoster, paralysis agitans, Huntington’s chorea, and myotonia
congenita.
Philippe Edouard Léon van Tieghem (FR) and Henri Douliot (FR)
introduced the concept of the stele
to the anatomy of the Pteridophyta (ferns, horsetails, and club-mosses) (1646; 1647).
Nathan Zuntz (DE) and
August Julius Geppert (DE) created the Zuntz-Geppert
respiratory apparatus for indirect calorimetry (1858).
Wilbur Olin Atwater (US) and Edward Bennett Rosa (US) constructed
the Atwater-Rosa calorimeter with which they, along with Francis Gano Benedict
(US) and Thorne Martin Carpenter (US), proved the law of conservation of energy
in human beings and made it possible to calculate the caloric values of
different foods (53; 54; 152). Note:
Their measurements were so precise that their energy equivalents for protein,
fat and carbohydrate are still used today. Atwater was first to adopt the word
'calorie' as an energy unit for food. (A calorie of food energy is actually
equivalent to 1000 calories of thermal energy.)
William Holbrook Gaskell (GB), in studies of the autonomic nervous
system, concluded that the “involuntary system” is composed of two antagonistic
subsystems (653).
Franz
Soxhlet (DE) reasoned that summer
diarrhea in children might be caused by bacteria growing in the milk they
consumed. When he sterilized the milk, a dramatic decrease in the frequency of summer diarrhea occurred (1525).
Adolf Eduard Mayer (DE-NL) demonstrated an infectious agent
(virus) to be the most likely cause of tobacco
mosaic disease in plants (1084; 1085).
James Brown Buist (GB) was probably the first to perform a
laboratory-based diagnosis of a viral disease when he stained the lymph
obtained from the skin lesions of patients with smallpox and saw elementary
bodies, which he took to be the cause of the disease (260; 690). Note:
this was six years before viruses were discovered.
Adolf Weil (DE) was the first to describe infectious jaundice or what was later called Weil’s disease (1755). The
etiological agent is a spirochete. See
Inada, 1916.
Daniel Elmer Salmon (US) and Theobald Smith (US) showed that dead swine plague bacilli could be used as a
vaccine (1429; 1430). Although
Smith made the discovery on his own, his supervisor, Daniel Elmer Salmon,
usurped credit.
John Elmer Weeks (US) was the first to cultivate Haemophilus aegypticus (1750; 1751). It is now recognized as the
cause of a highly contagious form of conjunctivitis known as pinkeye. This organism is sometimes
referred to as the Koch-Weeks bacillus.
Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (DE) observed a small bacillus, later
identified as Haemophilus aegyptius,
while examining a series of eye inflammations in Egypt (914).
Margaret Pittman (US) and Dorland J. Davis (US) were the first to
identify this organism as Haemophilus
aegypticus (1305).
Josef von Fodor (HU) and Vladimir Wyssokowitch (DE) emphasized
that the anti-putrefactive quality of circulating blood is part of the body’s
defense mechanism. They demonstrated that bacteria introduced into the
blood-stream rapidly disappear and apparently do not leave the body by any of
the channels of secretion or excretion (1679-1681; 1835).
Josef von Fodor (HU) found that blood mixed in vitro with anthrax
bacilli at 38°C caused a rapid decrease in the number of cells capable of
growing on gelatin plates (1681).
George Henry Falkiner Nuttall (US-GB) confirmed observations by
von Fodor and Wyssokowitch then discovered that the bacterial killing power of
the blood is lost on aging and destroyed by heating to 52°C for 10 to 30
minutes (1206; 1207). This
represents the discovery of the complement system.
Jean Alfred Fournier (FR) described congenital syphilis and emphasized that syphilis could cause degenerative diseases (608).
Frantisek Vejdovsky (CZ), in 1886, separated the gordiaceans from
the nematodes and hence his name, Nematomorpha for the gordiaceans. They are a
class within the phylum Aschelminthes (Nemathelminthes) (1652).
Daniel Alcides Carrión (PE) inoculated himself (fatally) and
proved that Oroya fever and verruga peruana are stages of a single
disease now commonly known as Carrión’s
disease (292).
Ernest Ordiozola (PE) introduced the term Carrión’s disease (1221).
Alberto Leopoldo Barton (PE) discovered that Carrión’s disease is caused by the rickettsium Bartonella bacilliformis (106).
Charles H. T. Townsend (US) found a species of Phlebotomus
(sandfly) whose bite caused the outbreak of the disease. He named the sandfly Phlebotomus verrucarum (Lutzomyia verrucarum) (1613).
Charles H.T. Townsend (US) provided evidence that lizards act as a
reservoir for Bartonella bacilliformis
(1614).
Richard Pearson Strong (US), Ernest Edward Tyzzer (US), Charles
Thomas Brues (US), Andrew Watson Sellards (US), and Julio C. Gastiaburu (PA)
named the rickettsial microorganism in honor of Barton (1560).
Hideyo Noguchi (JP-US) also demonstrated that Oroya fever and verruga
peruana are both caused by the parasite Bartonella
bacilliformis and are two different stages of the same infection called Carrion's disease, or bartonellosis (1201).
Marshall Hertig (US) established the role of the sandfly (782). Note: Cosme Bueno (ES-PE), in 1764, wrote
that Andean peoples of Peru attributed the diseases now known as leishmaniasis and bartonellosis to the bite of the uta or sand fly (259).
Felix Fränkel (DE) reported the first case of a tumor
of the adrenal medulla (616), a type of tumor that has become
known as pheochromocytoma. The
patient in this case was an 18-year-old girl who had died suddenly of collapse.
Her clinical history and autopsy findings pointed to a severe hypertensive
crisis. This, combined with the discovery of an adrenal medullary tumor,
presented what appears to be the first evidence, seer-, only in retrospect, of
the relationship between the adrenal medulla and blood pressure.
Pierre Marie (FR) fully described and named the constellation of
symptoms termed acromegaly: excessive
growth of the viscera and the bones of the face, hands, and feet, and the
thickening of soft tissues like the tongue, lips, and nose, which made the features
of acromegalic patients gradually become strikingly coarse and elongated. Other
signs and symptoms that Marie noted as characteristic of the chronic condition
included severe headaches, intense thirst and appetite, cessation of
menstruation, changes in the thyroid, and damaged vision. Then, in 1890 and
1891, Marie reported that enlarged pituitaries were always found in postmortern
examinations of persons with acromegaly,
and he hypothesized that the abnormal growth of the pituitary caused a glandular
deficiency and hence toxemia. He was the first to correlate the clinical and
pathological findings (1064; 1068).
William Rutherford (GB) suggested one of the “frequency theories”
of hearing. He proposed that every sound stimulates every hair cell, and the
larger the number of hair cells involved, the greater the sensitivity and
accuracy of the transmission. He stressed that it was the brain’s job to
interpret the vibratory patterns of stimulation and that this could be affected
by practice (1408).
Jean-Martin Charcot (FR), Pierre Marie (FR), Howard Henry Tooth
(GB), and Johann Hoffmann (DE) described what became known as Charcot-Marie-Tooth-Hoffmann syndrome.
It is characterized by slowly progressive wasting and weakness of distal muscle
of the arms and feet, caused by degeneration of the peripheral nerves, nerve
roots, and even the spinal cord, with loss of reflexes, loss of cutaneous
sensations and development of foot drop. Optic atrophy is sometimes present (309; 806; 1612). The
disease had been described previously, but its neuropathic basis was not
appreciated.
Benjamin B. Roa (US), Carlos A. Garcia (US), Ueli Suter (CH),
Deanna A. Kulpa (US), Carol A. Wise (US), Jane Mueller (US), Andrew A. Welcher
(US), G. Jackson Snipes (US), Eric M. Shooter (GB-US), Pragna I. Patel (IN-US),
and James R. Lupski (US) determined that Charcot-Marie-Tooth
disease type 1A (CMT1A), the most common form, is caused by a defect in the
gene for myelin protein PMP22 (1367).
JoAnn Bergoffen (US), James A. Trofatter (US), Margaret A.
Pericak-Vance (US), Jonathan L. Haines (US), Phillip F. Chance (US), and
Kenneth H. Fischbeck (US) determined that the X-linked form of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMTX) is
caused by mutations in the gap junction protein, connexin 32 (154).
Phileppe Latour (FR), Fransoise Blanquet (FR), Eva Nelis (BE), Christine
Bonnebouche (FR), Frangoise Chapon (FR), Philippe Diraison (FR), Elizabeth
Ollagnon (FR), Andre Dautigny (FR), Danielle Pham-Dinh (FR), Guy Chazot (FR),
Michel Boucherat (FR), Christine Van Broeckhoven (FR), and Antoon Vandenberghe
(FR) determined that Charcot-Marie-Tooth
disease type 1B (CMT1B) is caused by a defect in the gene for myelin
protein Po (967).
Hilário de Gouvêa (BR) provided the first documented evidence that
a susceptibility to cancer can be inherited from a parent to a child. He
reported that two of seven children born to a father who was successfully
treated for childhood retinoblastoma, a malignant tumor of the eye, also
developed the disease (407; 408).
Victor Alexander Haden Horsley (GB), using dogs, performed the
first successful experimental hypophysectomy. Two dogs
survived five and six months respectively after this operation (826).
Victor Alexander Haden Horsley (GB) successfully operated on
several cases of pituitary tumors in man (827; 828). The first
of these operations was performed in 1889.
Hermann Schloffer (AT) reported the
first successful resection of a pituitary tumor via a transphenoidal approach.
Local anesthesia was provided by cocaine (1449).
Anton von
Eiselsberg (AT) and Lothar von Frankl-Hochwart (AT) successfully drained
a cystic tumor of the pituitary gland by way of a superior transnasal approach.
The patient died 2 days later of purulent meningitis (1677; 1678).
Julius von
Hochenegg (AT), in 1908, used the same superior transnasal approach to
successfully treat a case of acromegaly (1692).
Jules Hardy
(CA) popularized the transphenoidal
approach and made contributions that advanced
microscope pituitary surgery into the modern era.
William MacCormac (GB) introduced
an operation for the treatment of intraperitoneal rupture of the bladder (1036).
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT) was
the first to make a plastic reconstruction of the esophagus after the resection
of its cervical portion for carcinoma (1701).
Hermann Kümmell (DE), in 1886, attempted the
first choledochotomy (surgical incision into the common bile duct) (946).
The world's first Ph.D. in psychology was awarded to Joseph
Jastrow at Johns Hopkins University.
1887
"It was from these dissections, from an elaborate course of
reading, and from numerous visits to the pork and slaughter houses of
Cincinnati, that I derived the knowledge upon which I founded my work on
Pathological Anatomy." Samuel David Gross (707)
Albert Abraham Michelson (PL-US) and Edward Williams Morley (US)
determined that the speed of light is constant regardless of whether it is
emitted from a moving or a stationary object (1117). Michelson,
in 1907, was the first American to receive a Nobel Prize in the sciences
(physics).
Jacobus Hendricus van’t Hoff (NL) realized that the osmotic
pressure generated by molecules (or later, ions) in solution was exactly the
same as they would exert at the same concentration in a gas, thus linking
solution theory to the long-established laws describing the behavior of gases.
Subsequently, he formulated the osmotic pressure equation, and the theory of
solutions that connected osmotic pressure, freezing-point depression, and the
lowering of vapor pressure as thermodynamic properties (1648).
Friedrich W. Semmler (DE) prepared divinyl ether (1473).
Chauncey Depew
Leake (US) and Mei-Yü Chen (US) first observed the anesthetic properties of
divinyl ether (973).
Chauncey Depew Leake (US), Peter K. Knoefel (US), and Arthur E.
Guedel (US) introduced divinyl oxide as an anesthetic (974).
Julius Richard Petri (DE), one of Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch’s
assistants, invented a dish now routinely used in microbiology, the petri dish (1285).
André Victor Cornil (FR), Victor Babès (FR), William Nicati (FR),
and Maximillien Rietsch (FR) described very similar dishes a couple of years
earlier (341; 1188).
Ernst Salkowski (DE) discovered phytosterol (phytosterin), the
nucleus of vegetable fats (1427). Phytosterols
act as a structural component in the cell membrane of plants, analogous to the
cholesterol in the cell of animals.
William Dobinson Halliburton (GB) gave the first credible
experimental descriptions of actin's properties (731).
Harunori Ishikawa (JP), Richard Bischoff (US), and Howard Holtzer
(US) detected actin filaments not just in muscle cells, but also in a wide
variety of mammalian cell types (848).
Klaus Weber (PL-DE-US) and Ute Groeschel-Stewart (DE) specifically
visualized myosin containing filaments in non-muscle cells (1748).
Elias Lazarides (US) identified tropomyosin in non-muscle cells (970).
Elias Lazarides (US) and Keith Burridge (GB-US) identified
alpha-actin as a normal component of non-muscle cells (971).
Nina Strömgren Allen (US) discovered that endoplasmic filaments
generate the motive force for rotational streaming in the green alga Nitella (21).
Sergei Nikolaevich Winogradsky (RU) discovered chemoautotrophic
bacteria that oxidize hydrogen sulfide to sulfur and others which oxidize
sulfur to sulfuric acid while using carbon dioxide as a carbon source. These
studies of sulfur bacteria eventually led to the concept of the sulfur cycle (1811; 1813).
Sergei Nikolaevich Winogradsky (RU) discovered Beggiatoa minima, Clostridium pasteurianum,
Cytophaga hutchinsonii, Nitrosococcus nitrosus, Nitrosocystis javaensis, N.
coccoides, Nitrosomonas europaea, Nitrosospira briensis, N. antarctica, and Nitrobacter.
In his book Soil
Microbiology, published in 1949, he wrote: "I started my work in 1885…
impressed by the incomparable glitter of Pasteur’s discoveries, as a young
student I entered this field of investigation and have remained faithful to it
to the end… My first investigations dealt with filamentous bacteria found in
sulfur and iron-containing springs; these were the first known autotrophs…" (1815)
Viktor Hensen (DE) introduced the term plankton to mean all particles and material which
floats in a water column, regardless of whether it occurs in the upper or lower
layers of the water column, or whether it is alive or dead. It is
derived from the Greek planktos, to
wander or drift. Hensen credits his colleague Professor Foerster with
suggesting this term (772).
Emile Maupas (FR) and Richard Karl Wilhelm Theodor von Hertwig
(DE) independently demonstrated exchange of micronuclei during conjugation by Paramecium (1079; 1691).
Jules Héricourt (FR) and Charles Robert Richet (FR) were the first
to conceive the notion of producing an immune serum; that is, of injecting into
an animal a substance to which it could then produce an antidote. (The injected
material is an antigen; the counter material produced is an antibody). If the
antigen is a bacterium or a bacterial toxin, then an antibody will exist that
will prevent future infections. If serum containing this antibody is then
injected into a human being, it may lend him immunity to a particular disease (775). Richet
tried to produce such an immune serum for tuberculosis but failed (1359). Later,
Emil Adolf Behring working along similar lines, succeeded with tetanus and diphtheria. Note: Richet
was the first to injection serum into a human in 1890.
Maurice Kaufmann (FR) used European viper (Vipera berus) venom and
guinea pigs while Henry Sewall (US) used rattlesnake venom and pigeons to
independently discover that anti-venoms are produced in the blood of animals
inoculated with small doses of venom, and that the degree of immunity can be
built up by slowly increasing the dosage of venom in successive inoculations (888; 1480).
Enrique Paschen (DE) rediscovered these elementary bodies (1266). They were
later named Paschen bodies in his
honor. These elementary bodies or Paschen bodies are now recognized as collections
of the virus.
Theodor Boveri (DE), while studying Ascaris megalocephala, was the
first to recognize naturally occurring polyploidy (212).
Fridtjof Nansen (NO) was the first to
point out that the posterior root nerve fibers divide on entering the spinal
cord into ascending and descending branches (1173).
Wilhelm Roux (DE) demonstrated that shortly after fertilization of
an amphibian egg a broad crescent develops in the lower hemisphere—opposite the
point of sperm entry—loses some of its dark pigment and becomes the gray
crescent. The gray crescent persists at most for a few cleavages. He found that
the dorsal lip of the blastopore appears where the gray crescent had been, and
he deduced that the plane of the first cleavage (median plane) bisects the
blastopore dividing the embryo into a right and left half. The three axes of
the future embryo are thus fixed before segregation of the egg begins (1390; 1392).
Luigi Salvatore Savastano (IT) determined the bacterial cause of
galling on olives (Olea europaea ) to
be Pseudomonas savastanoi (1436). This
disease, called olive knot, was
discovered in France.
Nil Feodorovich Filatov (RU) and Emil Pfeiffer (DE) independently
gave early clinical descriptions of infectious
mononucleosis (576; 1290).
Thomas Peck Sprunt (US) and Frank Alexander Evans (US) are
responsible for coining the phrase infectious
mononucleosis (1529). See, John R. Paul, 1932
Howard Atwood Kelly (US), in 1887, performed a hysterorrhaphy
(suturing of a lacerated uterus) (898).
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel; Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August Häcke; Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Heckel (DE) elaborated the concept
of organic form and symmetry after studying the radiolaria brought back by the Challenger expedition; symmetry referring
to the spatial relations and arrangements of parts in such a way as to form
geometrical designs (724).
Harry Marshall Ward (GB) wrote the first English translation of
Ferdinand Gustav Julius von Sach’s Lectures
on the Physiology of Plants; The Oak;
A Popular Introduction to Forest-Botany; Text-book of the Diseases of Trees,
with Robert Hartig; and Grasses; A
Handbook for the Use in the Field and Laboratory (747; 1423; 1734; 1735).
Henry Seebohm (GB) was the first ornithologist to recognize the
importance of isolation in species formation (1471).
Saturnin Arloing (FR), Charles Cornevin (FR), and Onésine Thomas
(FR) cultured Clostridium chauvoei
and established its etiological relationship to blackleg, also known as quarter
evil, and symptomatic anthrax
(not to be confused with anthrax) and developed a method of prophylactic
inoculation called the Lyon vaccine (41). This is an
acute disease that affects cattle. The bacterium was named in honor of Auguste
Chauveau (FR).
Paralytic
polio
was described as epidemic in Sweden (921).
William Thomas Councilman (US) described the characteristic
apoptotic bodies seen in the livers of patients with yellow fever (347).
Anton Weichselbaum (AT) isolated the causative agent of septic
meningitis, Neisseria meningitidis,
and associated it with six cases of acute
cerebrospinal meningitis (1752).
Johann Otto Leonhard Heubner (DE) was the first to isolate
meningococci from the cerebrospinal fluid of living beings (790).
Guido Banti (IT) pointed out that typhoid fever is caused by a bacterium (82).
Johan Frederik Eykman (NL) and Maurits Greshoff (NL) independently
described how the natives of India used snakeroot (Rauwolfia serpentina) to treat snakebites and the mentally ill. The
Indian word for mental is chandrá meaning moon, e.g., moon disease or lunacy (559; 703).
Edward Hartley Angle (US) developed the Angle system of regulation
and retention of the teeth, and treatment of fractures of the maxillae. This
rapidly became the most popular orthodontic method in the world (29-31).
Jakob Stilling (DE), Siegmund Türk (DE-CH), and Alexander Duane
(US) described a congenital syndrome of ocular and systemic abnormalities with
fibrosis of the external rectus. This condition prevents outward movement of
the eye (toward the ear), and in some cases may also limit inward eye movement
(toward the nose). As the eye moves inward, the eyelids partially close and the
eyeball pulls back (retracts) into its socket (Stilling-Türk-Duane syndrome) (469; 1552; 1629).
Paul Gerson Unna (DE) described seborrheic dermatitis and distinguished it from chronic eczema and psoriasis (1635).
Joseph Jules Déjérine (CH-FR) described Déjérine’s neuro-tabes (multiple peripheral neuritis with symptoms
like those of locomotor ataxia) (417).
Oscar Minkowski; Oskar Minkowsky (RU-DE) associated acromegaly with a hyperfunctional
pituitary gland (1130).
Julius Wagner-Jauregg (AT), to treat the mentally ill, induced
fevers using at turns tuberculin, typhus vaccine, and tertian malaria. In 1917,
nine patients with general paresis (neurosyphilis)
were treated by injecting blood from patients experiencing active malaria; three recovered, three showed
temporary relief, and three showed no improvement (1717-1719).
George Washington Crile (US) was the first to perform major operations
with intraneural injections of cocaine. His first such operation was in 1887 (359; 361).
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT)
developed an operation for the treatment of disease of the accessory nasal
sinuses (1704).
Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick (DE), in 1887,
constructed and fitted what was to be considered the first successful model of
a contact lens: an afocal sclaral contact shell made from heavy brown glass,
which he tested first on rabbits, then on himself, and lastly on a small group
of volunteers (575).
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT)
introduced the folded gauze pad for packing off the viscera in abdominal
operations and used as sponge in general (1702).
Walter Hermann Heineke (DE) and Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes
von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT) independently and almost simultaneously performed
the first pyloroplasty. This was done to eliminate pyloric
stenosis. A short longitudinal incision is made through all layers of the
pylorus and closed transversely. Used after truncal vagotomy. F. Fronmüller
described Heineke’s operation (630; 1703).
Henry L.
Coit (US) began as early as 1887 to work to ensure
a safe milk supply for infants, by educating the public,
lawmakers, and the medical community. He coined the term "Certified
Milk" and established the first
Medical Milk Commission in New Jersey (334).
Abraham
Jacobi (US) collaborated with the philanthropist Nathan Straus (US) to
establish pasteurization plants and milk stations for poor infants
in New York beginning in 1893. A 65% reduction in infant mortality
was observed in just one year in the foundling hospital
on Randall’s Island after Straus established a pasteurization
plant there (333; 334).
In 1908,
Chicago became the first city in the world to require pasteurization
of milk (334).
Ludwig
Lichtheim (DE) recognized a pathology of subacute spinal cord disease
associated with pernicious anemia and different from tabes dorsalis (Lichtheim’s disease) (987; 988).
James
Jackson Putnam (US) and Charles Loomis Dana (US) independently described a
neurological disease with great variability of symptoms, characterized by
degenerative changes in the white matter of the spinal cord associated with
pernicious anemia. Onset was usually insidious with weakness, fatigue, and
dyspnea on exertion. Other symptoms may include paralysis of the legs and arms,
with tremor present when there is increase in muscle tone (static tremor), and
in movement (kinetic or intentional); myalgia, edema of the feet and ankles,
numbness and tingling in the distal portions of the extremities, glossitis,
headache, malaise, and peculiar gait (Putnam-Dana
syndrome) (395; 1324).
James Samuel
Risien Russell (GB), Frederick Eustace Batten (GB), and James Collier (GB) gave
the most complete account of this syndrome (1404).
Note: malabsorption of vitamin B12,
vitamin E and copper are etiological factors.
John Langdon Down (GB) coined the term idiot savant to apply to children who, while feeble-minded, exhibit
special faculties, which are capable of being cultivated to a very great extent (453).
The Canadian Geological Survey found rich fossil beds containing
Upper Cretaceous dinosaur fauna along the Red Deer River in Alberta (281).
The National Institutes of Health was established in the United
States of America.
Annales
de l’Institut Pasteur was founded.s
Annals
of Botany
was founded.
Zeitschrift
fur Physikalische Chemie was founded.
1888
"Never advance anything which cannot be proved in a simple
and decisive fashion. Worship the spirit of criticism. If reduced to itself, it
is not an awakener of ideas or a stimulant to great things, but, without it,
everything is fallible, it always has the last word."
"It is indeed a hard task, when you believe you have found an
important scientific fact and are feverishly anxious to publish it, to
constrain yourself for days, weeks, years sometimes, to fight with yourself, to
try and ruin your own experiments and only to proclaim your discovery after
having exhausted all contrary hypotheses."
"But when, after so many efforts, you have at last arrived at
a certainty, your joy is one of the greatest which can be felt by a human soul,
and the thought that you will have contributed to the honour of your country
renders that joy still deeper."
"If science has no country, the scientist should have one,
and ascribe to it the influence which his works may have in this world." Louis
Pasteur (FR) (1639)page 443. Note: Remarks
made at the dedication of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, 14 November, 1888 . The Pasteur Institute was erected in Paris
and partially paid for with public donations from all over the world.
"The real enemy in most fevers is the noxious substance which
invades the body, and there is nothing to prevent us from believing that fever
is a weapon employed by Nature to combat assaults of this enemy. According to
this view, the fever-producing agents light the fire, which consumes them. It
is not incompatible with this conception of fever to suppose that the fire may
prove injurious also to the patients and may require the controlling hand of
the physician." William H. Welch (US) (1756)
Johann August Ludwig Friedrich Kehrmann (CH), Viktor Meyer; Victor
Meyer (DE) and John Joseph Sudborough (GB) found that
while atom groupings ordinarily can rotate freely about a single bond attaching
them to the rest of the molecule, the bulk of nearby groups of atoms sometimes
prevents this rotation. This they called steric
hindrance (890; 1113; 1114).
Eugen Baumann (DE) and Alfred Kast (DE) discovered the hypnotic
nature of sulphonal (883).
Erwin Frink Smith (US) postulated some sort of a virus as the cause of peach yellows (1510).
Auguste Fernbach (FR) tested for the presence of bacteria in 555
samples taken from the interiors of various plant tissues. Bacteria were found
in only 6.3% of the samples. Fernbach considered that these growths were the result
of accidental contaminations (572).
Martinus Willum Beijerinck (NL), in 1888, using Koch's postulates,
isolated Bacillus radicicola, a root-nodule bacterium later referred to
as genus Rhizobium. He was able to infect a legume to produce nitrogen-
fixing root-nodules. Beijerinck's research was first to prove the known
symbiotic relationship (partnership) between legume plants and some soil
bacteria (135).
Sergei Nikolaevich Winogradsky (RU) described photosynthetic
purple sulfur bacteria, including Chromatium (1812).
Nikolai
Fedorovich Gamaléia (RU) discovered Vibrio
metchnikovii in the intestinal tract and blood of fowls suffering from an
epidemic disease resembling fowl cholera (643).
André Chantemesse (FR) and Georges Fernand Isidore Widal (FR) made
the first observations of immunity conferred on experimental animals following
injection with heat killed typhoid bacilli (307; 308).
Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (DE), Wilhelm Kolle (DE), Almoth
Edward Wright (GB), and David Semple (GB) prepared and recommended a heat
inactivated vaccine for typhoid fever,
which could be prepared from killed typhoid bacilli (1296; 1825-1827).
Almroth Edward Wright (GB) and David Semple (GB) introduced a vaccine
prepared from killed typhoid bacilli as a preventive of typhoid. Wright first
inoculated himself to prove the safety of the vaccine before inoculating
others. Preliminary trials in the Indian army produced excellent results, and
typhoid vaccination was adopted for the use by British troops serving in the
South African War (1827).
Pierre Paul Émile Roux (FR) and Alexandre Émile Jean Yersin (CH)
proved that Corynebacterium diphtheriae
produces a soluble toxin responsible for the characteristic symptoms and
lesions of diphtheria and thus
demonstrated its etiological relationship to the disease (1387-1389).
Victor Babès
(RO) and Paul Ernst (DE) discovered and described the metachromatic granules
seen in the protoplasm of various gram-positive bacteria, algae, and protozoa.
These granules stain deeply with aniline dyes and are now known as Babes-Ernst granules or bodies (62; 549; 550).
Victor Babès
(RO) discovered a group of small protozoan parasites that invade the blood of
various animals and are now placed in the genus Babesia, named to honor him (60; 61). Babesia microti is
transmitted by the bite of infected Ixodes
scapularis ticks—typically, by the
nymph stage of the tick, which is about the size of a poppy seed.
Klaus Peter
Hunfeld (DE), Anke Hildebrandt (DE), and Jeremy S. Gray (IE) report that in cattle, a major host, the disease is known as Texas cattle fever, redwater, or piroplasmosis. Human babesiosis
is uncommon but reported cases have risen recently because of expanded medical
awareness (837).
Auguste Trillat (FR), in 1888, discovered the germicidal value of
formalin (40% formaldehyde in water) (1618; 1619). In 1891,
Trillat patented the solution as Formolin.
Theodor Geuther (DE) discovered that formalin (Formolin) destroys
the germinating power of smut spores (663).
Élie Metchnikoff; Ilya Metchinikoff; Iljitj Metchnikov; Iljitj
Metschnikov; Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov; Ilja Metjnikov (RU-FR) extended his theory of cellular immunity by
showing that anthrax bacteria are actively phagocytized and destroyed by
phagocytes from animals previous exposed to the bacterium (1104).
Wilhelm Roux (DE) experimentally produced a half-embryo by killing
one blastomere of the two-celled frog embryo (1391).
N. Kastschenko (UA) observed that in elasmobranchs, ectoderm
of the neural crest contributed to mesenchyme production in the nose, mouth,
and branchial clefts (885).
Julia Barlow Platt (US) demonstrated that cartilage and the
skeletal tissue that forms teeth in the head of a mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus)
embryo develop from the ectoderm (1308). Note: Platt thus
questioned the germ layer theory, which stated that ectoderm only produced
skin and brain structures, while all vascular, bone, muscle, and connective
tissues like cartilage were expected to develop from mesoderm.
Felix Anton Dohrn (DE), director and founder of the Stazione
Zoologica in Naples, Italy, agreed with and defended Platt's results after
examining his own data on shark embryos (447).
William Johnson Sollas (GB), geologist, paleontologist, and
spongiologist wrote Report on the
Tetractinellida Collected by H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-1876;
still considered a benchmark publication. In this monograph all tetractinellids
known at that time are treated, including the many dredged by H.M.S. Challenger. Many of the genera
and families erected by Sollas are still recognized as valid (1523). He is
commemorated by Amphius sollasi
Burton & Rao, 1932; Callipelta
sollasi Lévi&Lévi, 1989; Erylus
sollasi Von Lendenfeld, 1910; Isops
sollasi Lendenfeld, 1910; Pachastrella
sollasi Topsent, 1890; Penares
sollasi Thiele, 1900; Proteleia
sollasi Dendy & Ridley , 1886; Sollasella
Lendenfeld, 1888; Sollasellidae
Lendenfeld, 1888; Tethya sollasi
Bergquist & Kelly-Borges, 1991, and Alcyonium
sollasi.
Samuel Wendell Williston (US), in 1888, wrote the 1st edition of a
very important and influential book on the North American diptera (1794).
Thomas Belt (GB) discovered that small stinging ants, Pseudomyrma
bicolor, live in hollow thorns on the bull’s horn acacias where, in
exchange for safe places to nest and feed, they protect acacias from
depredations of other vegetarian animals. In his account of foraging or army
ants Eciton predator, he mentioned that birds follow these ants and snap
up any insects that take flight to escape the ants. Belt also discovered that
leaf-cutting ants, Oecodoma, use the leaf parts to grow fungi, which
they ate, in underground rooms (150).
Maximilian Fürbringer (DE) authored Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vogel, one of the
great classics in bird anatomy (635).
Edmond Isidore Étienne Nocard (FR) first described an infection in
cattle called farcy, which is caused
by an aerobic, partially acid-fast, branching type of actinomycete, Streptothrix farcinica (1199). Vittore
Benedetto Trevisan (IT) erected the genus Nocardia in honor of Nocard (1617); the etiological agent became Nocardia farcinica.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (RU) and W.W. Kudrewezki (RU) discovered
secretory fibers in the vagus, which diminish or abolish secretion by the
pancreas. Pavlov showed that atropine paralyzes these secretory fibers (943; 1268).
Victor Alexander Haden
Horsley (GB) and Edward Albert Schäfer (GB) published a somatotopic map of the
monkey motor cortex (829).
Charles Scott Sherrington (GB) described motor cortex of the
brain. While studying the brain, he developed the concept of the synapse,
coining the term synapse in the process (1492).
Albert Sidney Frankau Leyton (GB) and Charles Scott Sherrington
(GB) provided the first detailed proof that there is indeed localization of
function within the cerebral cortex. They were the first to establish precisely
the true extent of the motor area, and to provide the first detailed ‘motor
map' of the primate motor cortex. In addition, they showed that surgical
extirpation of the cortical tissue that, when stimulated, gave rise to movement
of a particular body part, resulted in a widespread weakness and loss of use of
that same body part. There was, however, substantial recovery in the weeks that
followed, recovery that was not lost on lesioning either the adjacent tissue in
the same hemisphere or the equivalent cortical area of the opposite hemisphere.
Finally, they were able to trace the course of the degenerating corticofugal
and corticospinal fibers. They observed widespread degeneration in the cervical
cord after a lesion of the hand and arm cortical area and noted that after such
a lesion in the chimpanzee, ‘the whole of the cross-area of ventral horn has
scattered through its many degenerating fibers…', which may be the first report
of the direct cortico-motoneuronal projection (985).
Carl G. Bernhard (SE), E. Bohm (SE), I. Petersen (SE) and D.
Taverner (GB) confirmed the existence of this projection physiologically (157-159).
Hugo Schulz (DE) noted that many chemicals can stimulate growth
and respiration of yeast at low doses but are inhibitory at higher levels (1455). This
concept of a generalized low-dose stimulation-high-dose inhibition was
gradually supported by similar observations with other chemicals and eventually
became known as the Arndt-Schulz law—Rudolf Arndt (DE). Although Schulz ushered
in the so-called modern concept of hormesis,
i.e., to set in motion, Paracelsus writing in the 16th century, likewise noted
that various toxic substances might be beneficial in small quantities. See, Paracelsus, c.1526.
The two phases (biphasic)
of a drug's action are dose-dependent. For instance, it is widely recognized
that normal medical doses of atropine block the parasympathetic nerves, causing
mucous membranes to dry up, while exceedingly small doses of atropine cause
increased secretions of mucous membranes.
Arnaldo Cantani (CZ-IT) proposed the concept of the neural spread
of rabies: in laboratory animals the transection of limb nerves following
peripheral inoculation prevented the evolution of the disease (284).
Alfonso Di Vestea (IT) and Giuseppe Zagari (IT) used laboratory
animals to provide convincing evidence to support Cantani’s proposal (428).
Karl Schaffer (HU) produced evidence for the neural spread of
rabies in humans (1438).
Byrom Bramwell (GB) recognized a connection between pituitary
tumors and body fat and polyuria (229).
Ètienne-Louis-Arthur Fallot (FR) described a congenital form of
heart disease which would later bear his name (tetralogy of Fallot) as follows: "Cyanosis, especially in the
adult, is the result of a small number of cardiac malformations well
determined…. One…is much more frequent than the others…. This malformation
consists of a true anatomopathologic type represented by the following
tetralogy: (1) Stenosis of the pulmonary artery; (2) Interventricular
communication; (3) Deviation of the origin of the aorta to the right; and (4)
Hypertrophy, almost always concentric in type, of the right ventricle. Failure
of obliteration of the foramen ovale
may occasionally be added in a wholly accessory manner." (565)
Niels Stensen (DK) had described this condition in 1671 (1539).
Thomas Bevill Peacock (GB) had described this disease in 1846 (1273).
Harald Hirschsprung (DK) described megacolon, a disease in which nerve ganglia are absent in the
myenteric plexus of the rectosigmoid area of the large intestine, leading to
improper development. The colon above the inactive area
of the sigmoid dilates and there is chronic constipation, abdominal distension,
and fecal impaction. The condition would later be named Hirschsprung’s disease (797).
Caleb Hillier Parry (GB) had been the first to report this disease (1265).
Samuel Jones Gee (GB), Christian Archibald Herter (US), Johann
Otto Leonhard Heubner (DE), and Thorvald Einar Hess Thaysen (DK) described and
defined a gastrointestinal disease resulting from defective fat and calcium
absorption, with deficient capacity for metabolizing the gluten fraction gliadin. Gee
stated, "to regulate the food is the main part of treatment. The allowance
of farinaceous foods must be small, but if the patient can be cured at all, it
must be by means of diet." (660; 781; 791; 1587)
Note: Terminology has
changed as research confirmed that celiac
disease diagnosed in children was the same disease as non-tropical sprue diagnosed in adults. The term "celiac disease" is now most
commonly used. Another term for the same condition includes "gluten sensitive enteropathy." Dermatitis herpetiformis also known as Duhring's disease and gluten ataxia are generally considered
specific manifestations of celiac disease.
Non-celiac gluten sensitivity symptoms and treatment are just like celiac disease without HLA similarity.
Only recently gluten sensitivity has been separated from the celiac disease umbrella.
Paul Ehrlich (DE) was the first to distinguish aplastic anemia (509).
Paul W. Furbringer (DE), in 1888, introduced his three-minute
method of hand disinfection, in which he placed the use of alcohol between the
mechanical soap-and-water, and the chemical disinfectant.
After shortening and cleaning the nails, he brushed the hands
thoroughly for one minute each, in soap and hot water, in 80 percent alcohol,
and in 1:500 sublimate solution (probably mercuric chloride) or Lysol. He saw
two points of value in alcohol, its fat-dissolving power, and its miscibility
with water, which enabled the alcohol to prepare the way for the watery
sublimate solution to adhere to and act upon the bacteria in the skin. His work
first introduced alcohol, and he defended his position with bacteriological
examination of hands so cleansed (636). See, Semmelweis 1850, 1861
Egbert Braatz (DE), in 1893, noted the importance of using
strictly sterile instruments, as well as water and alcohol in bottles with
foot-power faucets, and sterile basins and brushes (226).
William Williams Keen, Jr. (US) was the first American to remove
an intracranial meningioma (177).
William Richard Gowers (GB) and Victor Alexander Haden Horsley
(GB) reported the first successful operation for the removal of an
extramedullary tumor of the spinal cord (697). Note: Charles Alfred Ballance (GB) assisted
Horsley in this operation, playing a critical role in its success.
Joseph Jules Francoise Felix Babinski (PL-FR), Paul Lècene (FR),
F. Bourlot (FR), Thierry de Martel (FR), and Joseph Jumentié (FR) successfully
removed spinal meningiomas (68; 69).
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT)
developed an operation to repair complete prolapse of the rectum (1705).
Jan
Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT) removed a bladder stone
by a transperitoneal incision (sectio Alta interperitonealis). He closed
the bladder using furrier’s suture and catheterized it for a time. In a case of
carcinoma of the bladder, he deliberately opened the peritoneum and performed a
combined intravesical and intra-abdominal operation (1410).
Rudolph Matas (US), in 1888, was the first to use intravenous
fluids in a surgical patient. He amputated the leg of a young man and while the
blood loss of the patient was “comparatively slight” according to Dr. Matas,
the patient was in a state of shock with a “small, shallow, and rapid” pulse.
Dr. Matas injected two pints of a warm saline solution into the patient,
resulting in a strengthening and slowing of the pulse (841; 1075).
Rudolph Matas (US) reported the first known
endoaneurysmorrhaphy. After ligation of the proximal and distal regions of a
large traumatic brachial artery aneurysm of the left arm, an incision was made
into the aneurysm, and the clot was removed. The orifices of the blood vessels
that entered the sac then were sutured from within, which preserved the
collateral blood supply to the extremity (1074; 1077). Note:
This operation markedly reduced the incidence of gangrene and amputation that
followed the procedure in a high percentage of patients who underwent the
Hunterian ligation for popliteal aneurysm. This principle is still used.
Rudolph Matas (US) expanded the scope of intravenous fluid
replacement to the surgical patient in July 1888. He had just performed an
amputation at the thigh on a 26-yr.-old patient with a cavernous sarcoma of the
leg. Six hours postoperatively, he found the patient to be "in a condition
of profound shock when he was placed in bed, the pulse being very small,
shallow, and rapid." Two pints of a salt solution were warmed and infused
through the basilic vein at Dr. Matas' direction. After this infusion, Dr.
Matas stated that the patient "felt as if a delightful cool wave were
gently spreading over his body and was giving him new strength and life and wonderfully
appeasing his thirst." (1078)
Ian Greaves (US) and Norbert Hirschhorn (US) proposed that Louisa
May Alcott (US), famous American author, whose immediate cause of death in 1888
was a stroke, suffered
a multi-system disease, possibly originating from effects of mercury on the
immune system. A portrait of Alcott at the Alcott
museum, Orchard House, in Concord, Mass exhibiting a distinctive
"butterfly-rash," a pinkish hue across Alcott's cheeks and nose, that
often accompanies lupus raises the possibility that she had systemic
lupus erythematosus (SLE) (702).
William Osler (CA-GB) was the primary force behind bringing the
best teaching methods from Europe to Johns Hopkins Medical School and making it
the leading medical center in America. He wrote Principles and Practice of Medicine, the greatest textbook of
medicine in its time (1225).
Harry Govier Seeley (GB) determined that dinosaurs consist of lizard-hipped (saurischian) and bird-hipped (ornithischian) branches (1472). He named Agrosaurus
(1891), Anoplosaurus (1878), Aristosuchus (1887), Craterosaurus
(1874), Macrurosaurus (1876), Orthomerus (1883), Priodontognathus
(1875), Rhadionsaurus (1881), and Thecospondylus (1882).
The Marine Biological Station at Woods Hole, MA in the United
States was established.
1889
Svante August Arrhenius (SE) presented his equation for temperature
dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction and suggested the existence of
'energy of activation', an amount of energy that must be supplied to molecules
before they will react (45).
Walther Hermann Nernst (DE) discovered the energetic equivalence
of Faraday's constant F to PV/n of the gas laws, thereby mathematically linking
electrometric ion activity to the behavior of gases (1178).
Martinus Willum Beijerinck (NL),
in 1889, is generally credited with the first thin-layer chromatography (TLC).
He diffused a drop of hydrochloric and sulfuric acid mix through a gelatin
thin-layer and found that the hydrochloric acid traveled faster than the
sulfuric acid, separating into concentric rings. He also
pioneered the use of visualization reagents. The hydrochloric acid was
visualized with silver nitrate, and the sulfuric acid with barium chloride (136).
Martinus Willum Beijerinck (NL) applied high-performance thin layer chromatography
(HPTLC) in combination with bioluminescence detection using Aliivibrio
fischeri bacteria (137).
Hendrik
Paulus Wijsman, Jr. (NL) used Beijerinck's (TLC) technique to identify the
active enzyme in malt diastase, which
splits off maltose from soluble starch. He invented the first fluorescent
indicator for (TLC) visualization by preparing a
gelatin layer containing starch and a marine fluorescent bacterium; he diffused
the amylase mixture through the gelatin, obtaining a fluorescent band only
where the beta-amylase reacted with
the starch (1783).
Nikolai A. Izmailov (RU) and Maria S. Shraiber (RU) developed the
"drop-chromatographic method" which later became known as thin-layer
chromatography. To separate a mixture of organic plant extracts they used
microscope slides coated with a suspension of various adsorbents (calcium,
magnesium, aluminum oxide), then deposited one drop of the mixture on this
layer, followed by one drop of the same solvent which would be used in a column
separation. The separated components appeared as concentric rings that
fluoresced in various colors under a UV lamp (854).
James E. Meinhard (US) and Norris F. Hall (US) used thin-layer
chromatography (TLC)
to separate terpenes found in essential oils (1097).
Justus G. Kirchner (US), John M. Miller (US), George J. Keller
(US), Randall G. Rice (US), Leslie S. Ettre (US), and Albert Zlatkis (US) at
the US Department of Agriculture's Fruit and Vegetable Laboratory in California
perfected thin-layer chromatography (TLC) by
modifying the Meinhard & Hall technique, substituting silica gel as the
adsorbent after investigation of over a dozen candidates and settling on gypsum
as the least reactive binder (902-904; 1125).
Heinrich Ferdinand Edmund Drechsel (DE) isolated the amino acid
lysine from hydrolyzed casein. He called it lysatine
from the Greek meaning loosing (456).
Charles Tanret (FR) isolated ergosterol from plant tissue (rye) (1575; 1576).
Gerhard Lange (DE) isolated lignic acid from wood (958; 959).
Gerhard Lange (DE) determined the quantitative cellulose content
within woods (960).
Franz Hofmeister (CZ-DE) crystallized ovalbumin from a
half-saturated solution of ammonium sulfate. This was one of the first proteins
to be isolated in pure form (812; 813).
Jean-Paul Vuillemin (FR) coined the term antibiosis (1714).
Selman Abraham Waksman (RU-US), in 1942, coined the term as antibiotic in its modern incarnation to
mean chemical substances, including compounds and preparations that are
produced by microbes and have antimicrobial properties (1721).
Rudolf Emmerich (DE) and Oscar Löw (DE) introduced an
antibacterial agent from aged cultures of Pseudomonas.
They named their material pyocyanase,
thinking it was an enzyme. Although a potent antibiotic it proved to be so
toxic that it was not clinically usable (537).
Albert Charrin (FR) and Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB) discovered that
a filtered culture of pyocyanic bacillus can induce fever in rabbits in the
absence of live or dead bacteria (312).
Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (DE) and August Paul
Wassermann (DE) concluded from their studies that wall material from young
cultures of Vibrio cholerae contains
a potent heat-stable toxic substance, which they named endotoxin (1292; 1298).
Eugenio Centanni (IT) recognized the intimate relationship
between the pyrogenic and toxic properties of the bacterial poison, which he
found to be chemically inseparable. This led him to name his material "pyrotoxina."
(299)
Nous avons eu la joie de constater que ... en effet le sérum
obtenu neutralisait des doses multiples d’endotoxine pesteuse... [It was a
pleasure for us to state that ... the obtained serum indeed neutralized
multiple doses of plague endotoxin... ] Alexandre Besredka (RU-FR)(165).
Ivan L. Bennett Jr. (US), Paul Beeson (US), and
Elizabeth Roberts (US) were the first to extract a fever- producing substance
from rabbit polymorphonuclear leukocytes (153).
Elisha Atkins (US) and W. Barry Wood Jr. (US)
isolated a circulating endogenous pyrogen in the blood after the injection of
typhoid vaccine (52).
Philip E. Auron (US), Andrew C. Webb (US), Lanny J. Rosenwasser
(US), Steven F. Mucci (US), Alexander R. Rich (US), Sheldon M. Wolff (US), and Charles
Dinarello (US) cloned the human interleukin-1β, known to be the endogenous
pyrogen among many other activities (57).
Theresa T. Pizarro (US) and Fabio Cominelli (US) by cloning
interleukin 1 (IL-1) ushered in the birth of a new era in cytokine biology (1306).
Albert Charrin (FR) and Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB) reported that a
section of sciatic nerve favors the infectious process. They made a similar
observation regarding a portion of the pneumogastric nerve (vagus nerve) after
tracheal infection. This is likely one of the very first reports in
neuroimmunology (313).
Lyudmila V. Borovikova (US), Svetlana Ivanova (US), Minghuang
Zhang (US), Huan Yang (US), Galina I. Botchkina (US), Linda R. Watkins (US),
Haichao Wang (US), Naji Abumrad (US), John W. Eaton (US), and Kevin J. Tracey
(US) found that vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory
response to endotoxin (206).
Martinus Willem Beijerinck (NL) invented the technique of
auxanography. Its application underlies the disk diffusion antibiotic assay and
vitamin assays based on diffusion of the vitamin within a gel (136).
Theodor Boveri (DE) demonstrated the role of the nucleus in
heredity by fertilizing nonnucleated fragments of uncleaved sea urchin eggs and
found that in some cases, at least, normal larvae developed, as they did also
on occasion from unfertilized egg fragments containing only the egg nucleus.
This was a clear demonstration of the equivalence, for development, of the
maternal and paternal nuclei (213).
August Julius Geppert (DE) demonstrated that while mercuric
dichloride appears to be a potent antibacterial agent, its effect must be
qualified. He found that on adding ammonium sulfide to precipitate all the
mercury at the end of an experiment many of the cells, which appeared to be
dead by Koch’s technique, were in fact still alive. They had been unable to
develop because of the traces of mercuric chloride surrounding them. Without
ammonium sulfide treatment, mercuric dichloride in a concentration of 1:1000
apparently killed all the anthrax spores in from 3 to 7 minutes, but if the
mercury was precipitated as sulfide many of the spores were shown to have
survived. Even after exposure to a concentration of 1:100 mercuric dichloride, anthrax
spores were not destroyed with certainty when treated for 6 to 12 minutes (661).
Hans Ernst August Buchner (DE) confirmed the work of Josef von
Fodor (HU) and George Henry Falkiner Nuttall (US-GB) by showing that
antibacterial substances occur in the serum. He went on to show that this
bactericidal quality of blood could be demonstrated in vivo. The carotid artery of a dog was exposed and connected with
a cannula. The animal was then injected with a culture of typhoid bacilli, and
50 c.c. of blood allowed to flow from the cannula to ensure that the artery was
filled with blood. A small quantity of blood was again run out and tested for
the presence of typhoid bacilli. The artery above was then ligated in two
places and the contents of the isolated segment was examined five hours later,
when it was found that a profound reduction in the number of bacilli had
ensued. During his prolonged researches Hans Buchner gradually elaborated the
view of the existence of substances in the serum inimical to bacteria. He named
the substances alexines (I defend)
for their protective and defensive properties (256-258). This work
is part of the discovery of the complement system. See, von Fodor 1887.
Otto Bütschli (DE) and Conrad Schwager (DE) wrote one of the first
and most important monographs on the protozoa. The scale and range of this
three-volume work is remarkable (267).
During 1889 and in 1892, there occurred among the caterpillars of
the nun moth (Lymantria monacha
Linn.), which was destroying large spruce forests in Europe, a peculiar disease
that killed off enormous numbers of the insect. The disease, later found to be
a virus-induced polyhedrosis called Wipfelkrankheit,
is one of the first known examples of natural insect pest control (1537).
Cornelis
Adrianus Pekelharing (NL) was the first to report in vivo chemotaxis .
He put cotton wool soaked with anthrax bacilli in the peritoneal cavity of a
frog. Retrieving this cotton wool some time later, he showed that it contained
significantly more leukocytes than those that had been soaked with neutral
liquid. He came to the conclusion that bacteria produce chemoattractant factors
(1279).
Jean
Massart (FR) and Charles Bordet (FR) were the first to demonstrate that the
host can make chemoattractant factors. They injected bovine bile subcutaneously
in a frog. Then, they sampled the transudation liquid and transferred it in a
capillary tube into the abdominal cavity of another frog. Twenty hours later,
the capillary tube was full of leukocytes, whereas this was not observed with a
capillary tube filled with normal lymph (1072).
Jean
Massart (FR) and Charles Bordet (FR) injected s.c. bacteria (Micrococcus
prodigiosus, nowadays known as Serratia marcescens) into a rabbit.
Thirty-five minutes later, they sampled the blood, prepared the serum, placed
it in a capillary tube and finally transferred it into the peritoneal cavity of
another rabbit. Eight hours later, the capillary tube was full of leukocytes,
whereas this was not the case when the tubes were filled with normal serum. For
the first time, they had demonstrated that chemoattractant factors were
produced in response to infection (1073).
Richard
D. Granstein (US), Randall Margolis (US), Steven B. Mizel (US), and Daniel N.
Sauder (CA) focused on investigations of interleukin 1 (IL-1) and established
that it was produced by many cell types and had multiple biological activities
by also stimulating a great variety of cell types. Subcutaneous injections of
IL-1 had been shown to induce acute inflammatory responses with rapid
margination of neutrophils followed by their extravascular infiltration (698). See, Auron, 1984.
Albert
Zlotnik (US) and Osamu Yoshie (US) note that the discovery of well-identified
chemoattractant factors, later called chemokines (the word was coined in 1992),
was made in 1987 and 1988 with the description of interleukin-8 and macrophage
inflammatory protein (MIP), renamed CXCL8 and CCL3 according to the revised
nomenclature of chemokines (1856).
Edward Klein
(DE) reported that Bacillus gallinarum
was the cause of an outbreak of fowl
cholera and reported it as infectious
enteritis (911).
Veranus A. Moore (US) described the disease as infectious leukemia and named the
organism Bacillus sanguinarum (1149; 1150).
Leo F.
Rettger (US) (1899) was the first to isolate Salmonella pullorum and describe it as the cause of a fatal
septicemia of young chicks (1353).
Leo F.
Rettger (US) designated the disease as white
diarrhea (1354).
Frederick
Cooper Curtice (1902) studied the disease in Rhode Island and named it fowl typhoid (383).
Leo F.
Rettger (US) and Frederick H. Stoneburn (US) expanded the term to bacillary white diarrhea to distinguish
it from other diseases that might be classified under a common term of white
diarrhea (1355).
Theobald
Smith (US) and Carl TenBroeck (US) recorded that Salmonella gallinarum and Salmonella
pullorum are serologically identical (1519).
Albert Charrin (FR) and Henri Louis Roger (FR) found that when Bacillus pyocyaneus is grown in the
serum of an animal previously injected with B.
pyocyaneus it does not grow diffusely through the medium, as it does in
broth or normal serum, but in small masses which sink to the bottom of the
tubes and the bacilli are found stuck together. The clumping of particulate
matter, e.g., bacteria, due to immune serum is now called agglutination (311).
Max von Gruber (AT) and Herbert Edward Durham (GB) extended this
observation by showing that the agglutination of bacteria by serum is specific (484; 1683-1686). This was
quickly seized upon as a new diagnostic tool.
Georges Fernand Isidore Widal (FR), Jean-Marie-Athanase Sicard
(FR) and Albert Sidney Frankau Grünbaum (GB) showed that the agglutination of
enteric bacteria can be used as an aid to identify the infectious agent. This
reaction is brought about by the addition of a patient’s serum to a uniform
suspension of a known bacterium. The Widal test is used for diagnosis of typhoid fever by mixing the patients
serum with a 24-hour Salmonella typhi
culture on a glass slide or other appropriate surface. Clumping of the cells
after a 30 to 60-minute incubation is a positive reaction (710; 1777; 1779; 1780). Note: Grünbaum later changed his name to
Albert Sidney Frankau Leyton.
Theobald Smith (US) and Frederick Lucius Kilbourne (US), assisted
by Frederick Cooper Curtice (US), discovered that the infectious agent of Texas cattle fever (tick fever, or bovine fever) is Pirosoma bigeminum (Babesia bigemina) (a protozoan) and that it is
transmitted by the cattle tick, Boophilus
bovis (Boophilus annulatus).
Their 1893 paper is a masterpiece of orderly reasoning, experiments to answer
specific questions, and complete details of each animal used; it is a recognized
classic in medical literature. Quoting from a summary in the 1893 monograph,
“(1) Texas cattle fever is a disease of the blood,
characterized by the destruction of red corpuscles. The symptoms are partly due
to the anemia produced; partly to the large amount of debris in the blood,
which is excreted with difficulty, and which causes derangement of the organs
occupied with its removal.
(2) The destruction of the red corpuscles is due to a
microorganism or micro-parasite, which lives within them. It belongs to the
protozoa and passes through several distinct phases in the blood.
(3) Cattle from the permanently infected territory, though
otherwise healthy, carry the micro-parasite of Texas fever in their
blood.
(4) Texas fever may be produced in susceptible cattle as a
direct inoculation of blood containing the micro-parasite.
(5) Texas fever in nature is transmitted from cattle that
come from the permanently infected territory to cattle outside of this
territory by the cattle tick (Boophilus
bovis).
(6) The infection is carried by the transovarian passage through
the progeny of the ticks that matured on infected cattle, and the organisms
inoculated by them directly into the blood of susceptible cattle.
(7) Sick natives may be a source of infection (when ticks are
present).
(8) Texas fever is more fatal to adult than to young cattle.
(9) Two mild attacks or one severe attack will probably prevent a
subsequent fatal attack in every case.
(10) Sheep, rabbits, guinea pigs, and pigeons are susceptible to
direct inoculation. (Other animals have not been tested.)
(11) In the diagnosis of Texas fever in the living animal
the blood should always be examined microscopically if possible." (1513; 1518)
Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (DE) described the stages of Babesia bigemina developing in the
tick's gut within the first 20 hours after repletion (916).
Note: "The cause of Texas
fever in cattle, which is characterised by
lysis of erythrocytes leading to anaemia, icterus, haemoglobinuria, and death,
remained unsolved for many decades and assorted theories were proposed as an
explanation for a disease being transmitted by apparently healthy animals. From
1889 to 1893, Theobald Smith and Frederick L. Kilbourne could demonstrate in
elegantly conducted experiments how the disease was spread from cattle to
cattle by ticks serving as the vector of transmission. Furthermore, they were
able to identify the pathogen of Texas
fever, an intra-erythrocytic protozoan which
Smith named Pyrosoma
bigeminum. Today it is recognised that either of
two species of the now renamed genus Babesia, Babesia
bigemina and Babesia bovis, may
be involved in Texas
fever and that babesiosis is
generally transmitted by ticks. In animals, genera like Boophilus spp., Dermacentor spp. and Rhipicephalus spp.
are possible vectors. The first case of tick-transmitted babesiosis in a human was reported by Skrabalo and Deanovic
in 1957 and occurred near Ljubliana in the small town of Strmec, Croatia. In
humans, the vectors of most reported cases are ticks of the genus Ixodes, which are among the most predominant ticks in
Austria. However, cases of human babesiosis in Austria remain to be studied. Smith and
Kilbourne's work was the first demonstration that ticks transmit disease of any
kind. Furthermore, by proving that ticks carry Babesia microti—which
causes babesiosis in animals and humans—this is the first account of
a zoonotic disease and the foundation of all later work on the animal host and
the arthropod vector." (50)
Ira van Gieson (US) introduced the first triple staining technique
to histology. He used hematoxylin, acid fuchsin, and picric acid to stain nerve
tissue (1645).
Walther Flemming (DE) introduced his triple stain to histology. It
consisted of safranin, followed by gentian violet, and decolorization in orange
G. It is a favorite with botanical cytologists and is valued for staining cells
in mitosis (598).
Wilhelm His (CH) proved that the origins of neural parts of the
nervous system are ectodermal and the vascular parts mesodermal. He further
suggested that embryonal neuroglial fibers might guide the migration of early
neuronal cells (799).
Carlo Giovanni Martinotti (IT) described a cortical neuron with an
ascending axon (this neuron now bears his name, Martinotti cells) (1071).
Franz C. Müller-Lyer (DE) discovered the Müller-Lyer illusion (an
optical illusion in which the orientation of arrowheads makes one line segment
look longer than another) (1165).
Francis Galton (GB) formulated the law of ancestral inheritance, a statistical description of the
relative contributions to heredity made by one's ancestors (639). This book
is considered the beginning of modern biometry.
Henry Head (GB) demonstrated the action of the vagus nerve in
respiration (756).
Ludwig Edinger
(DE) discovered the direct connection of the spinal cord and thalamus in fish, frogs
and cat embryos. He found that cells in the dorsal
horn give rise to axons which pass through the ventral commissure, ascend
in the opposite anterolateral funiculus and seemingly end in
the thalamus
(496; 497).
Leopold Auerbach (DE) confirmed this (55).
Eliza Dalgleish Ewart (GB) gave the first comprehensive
description of the anatomy of the human lung (555).
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard (FR) reported that he had
“rejuvenated” himself with subcutaneous injections of a testicular extract from
freshly killed guinea pigs and dogs (246; 247).
Berthold Hatschek (CZ-AT) removed the ctenophores as a separate
group recognizing that the coelonterata should be subdivided into Spongiara,
Cnidaria, and Ctenophora. He gave a distinct name to the group as
Phylum Ctenophora (751).
Ernst Fuchs (DE) described an outbreak of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC) (633).
Ernest Jawetz (US), Samuel J. Kimura (US), A.N. Nicholas (US),
Phillips Thygeson (US), Lavelle Hanna (US) discovered that this clinical
picture of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
(EKC) is associated with adenovirus type 8 (861; 862).
Joseph Hammond Bryan (US) presented a classic paper on diagnosis
and treatment of sinusitis involving the antrum (252).
August Pfeiffer (DE) described Yersinia
pseudotuberculosis (1290). It has also been called Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis, Shigella pseudotuberculosis, and Bacillus pseudotuberculosis.
V.A. Znamenskiy (RU) and A.K. Wishnyakov (RU), through
self-inoculation, demonstrated that Y.
pseudotuberculosis is, in fact, a causative agent of gastroenteritis in
humans and the etiological agent of Far
East scarlet-like fever (1857).
M. Bourdin (FR) reported that many species, most of them rodents
or birds, could serve as healthy carriers of Y. pseudotuberculosis (210).
Masahiro Tahara (JP), Kiyoshi Baba (JP), Kenji Waki (JP), and
Yoshio Arakaki (JP) presented data suggesting that Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection might play a role in the
developing mechanism of poor response to therapy and the tendency to develop
coronary artery lesions in Kawasaki
disease patients (1567).
Stephen
Paget (GB) analyzed 735 case histories of fatal breast cancer where he found that metastases formed in the liver
far more often than in any other organ — even those such as the spleen that
could be considered to have the same exposure to the cancer cells because of
similar blood flows. Paget reasoned that sites of secondary growths are not a
matter of chance, and that some organs provide a more fertile environment than
others for the growth of certain metastases. "The best work in the
pathology of cancer is now done by those who... are studying the nature of the
seed," he noted. "They are like scientific botanists; and he who
turns over the records of cases of cancer is only a ploughman, but his
observation of the properties of the soil may also be useful." This is
referred to as the seed and soil
hypothesis of cancer (1247).
Ian Hart
(GB) and Isaiah Fidler (US) performed experiments in mice, which verified
Paget’s hypothesis (746).
Joseph von Mering (DE) and Oskar Minkowski (RU-DE) discovered the
role of the pancreas in glucoregulation when they surgically removed the
pancreas of dogs and found that their blood sugar and urine sugar would rise
causing hyperglycemia and glycosuria (diabetes
mellitus) (1131; 1698; 1699). See Thomas Cawley, 1788.
Rudolf von Jaksch; Rudolf Jaksch von Wartenhorst (AT) and
Georges Hayem (FR) described what Jaksch named anaemia leucaemica infantum,
a chronic anemic disease occurring in children under 3 years of age. It was a
symptom complex characterized by acute hemolytic anemia, hepatosplenomegaly,
and infections associated with several chronic diseases, such as, tuberculosis,
congenital syphilis, gastrointestinal disorders, and malnutrition. The patient
presents with listlessness, weakness, gastrointestinal troubles and irregular
fever (754; 1693). Note: It is also called also
called Jaksch-Hayem-syndrome.
Barend Joseph Stokvis (NL) published the first case and clinical
description of acute hepatic porphyria.
This case of acute illness was provoked by the newly introduced hypnotic drugs
sulfonmethane, also known as sulfonal. Stokvis observed the unusual dark red
urine, discovered that it contained porphyrins, and coined the name
"porphyria" for the condition. The patient's underlying condition was
probably acute intermittent porphyria,
which can be provoked by medicines (1556).
William Stewart Halsted (US) pioneered the radical mastectomy
operation that entailed removal of the breast and underlying muscles, and lymph
nodes under the arm. This was in response to the high rate of cancer recurrence
experienced at the time (741). He
eventually achieved an unprecedented 72 percent five-year cure rate for
patients whose disease had not spread to adjoining glands. Halsted first
performed this operation in 1889. See, Patey, 1948
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki; Johannes von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT), in
1889, performed the first enterocystoplasty (1706).
Jean-Francis-Auguste Le Dentu (FR), in 1889, made the first
attempt at a unilateral cuteneous ureterostomy to restore renal function in
obstructive anuria caused by pelvic malignancy (972).
Ludwik
Rydygier; Ludwig Anton Rydygier von Ruediger (PL-DE), in 1892, performed
the first bilateral cuteneous ureterostomy. Ref
Edoardo Bassini (IT) and William Stewart Halsted (US)
independently developed a surgical procedure for the radical repair of inguinal hernia (Bassini's operation)
(Halsted’s operation 1). Bassini used cocaine as a local anesthetic in these
operations (107; 245; 739). This is
called herniorrhaphy.
Miguel
Angel Carbajo (ES), Juan Carlos Martin del Olmo (ES), Jose Ignacio Blanco (ES),
Carmen de la Cuesta (ES), Miguel Toledano Trincado (ES), Fernando Martin (ES),
Carlos Vaquero (ES), and Luis Inglada (ES) Kamal M.F.Itani (US), Kwan Hur (US),
Lawrence T. Kim (US), Thomas Anthony (US), David Berger (US), Domenic Reda(US),
Leigh Neumayer (US), and Veterans Affairs Ventral Incisional Hernia
Investigators (US) advocated the laproscopic approach because of reduced complications,
operating time, shorter length of hospital stay, and faster return to normal
activities (285; 850).
Wilhelm Wagner (DE) used a scalpel, hammer, and chisel to resect a
flap of scalp and skull hinged upon muscle so that it could be replaced. With
such a large osteoplastic flap, the surgeon could cut the dura mater about an attached tumor or reflect the dura mater to explore much of the
lateral cortex. This method could expose a much larger area of the brain’s
surface than a trephine (1716).
Ernst Gustav Benjamin von Bergmann (LV-DE) wrote a classic
textbook on cranial surgery, which was later, incorporated into the five-volume
work on surgery by von Bergmann and Paul von Bruns (DE) (1667; 1670).
Gottlieb Burckhardt (CH) was, in 1888, the first physician to
perform modern psychotherapy (lobotomy) when he excised various brain regions from six
psychiatric patients under his care. Aimed at relieving symptoms rather than
effecting a cure, the theoretical basis of the procedure rested on his belief
that psychiatric illnesses were the result of specific brain lesions. He
reported the results at a Berlin medical conference in 1889 (262).
Paul Loye (FR) concluded that the loss of complete consciousness
and brain death occurred immediately after decapitation, but various parts of
the body, such as the heart, continued to work for several minutes as a reflex
action (1029).
Pierre Marie Félix Janet (FR) argued that, "hysterical
symptoms are due to subconscious fixed ideas that have been isolated and
usually forgotten. Split off from consciousness – 'dissociated' – they embody
painful experiences but become autonomous by their segregation from the main
stream of consciousness." (860) This
predated Freud's announcement of virtually, an identical discovery, by four
years.
Jonathan
Hutchinson (GB) originated the naming of clinical disorders after patients—Hilliard’s lupus—as opposed to naming
them for the describing physician (840).
A worldwide epidemic of influenza, the most devastating to that
time, began in central Asia in the summer of 1889, spread north into Russia,
east to China and west to Europe. By December it had struck the major U.S.
cities, and continued to spread through North America the following year. Parts
of Africa and the Middle East were infected early in 1890; and India, Southeast
Asia, Australia and New Zealand were reached between February and May.
Completing the circle, Eastern China had the last major outbreak of this
pandemic, in September and October of 1890 (921).
1890
"The
broad fact that the invasion of the organism by microbes most often induces, on
the one hand, an inflammatory reaction with its associated emigration of
leukocytes, and that, on the other hand, the phagocytes are capable of
including and destroying the invaders, leads us to admit that the afflux of
phagocytes to the invaded region and their bactericidal properties are
mechanisms which serve to ward off bacterial attack and to maintain the
integrity of the organism." Elie Metchnikoff's address at the Institute
Pasteur on December 29, 1890.
"When
you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must
be the truth." Sherlock Holmes from the Sign of the Four by Arthur Conan Doyle (454).
"The
immunity of rabbits and mice which have been immunized against tetanus rests on
the capability of cell-free blood serum to render harmless the toxic substances
which the tetanus bacilli produce." Emil Adolf Behring, Shibasaburo
Kitasato (134)
Jakob Stilling (DE) reported the bacteriostatic action of the
triphenylmethane dyes. Methyl violet and auramine were recommended as useful
antiseptics (1553; 1554). The
bacteriostatic property of malachite green was reported later.
John W. Churchman (US) showed that derivatives of triphenylmethane
such as gentian violet and brilliant green dyes are inhibitory to bacteria,
particularly Gram positives; and crystal violet causes some inhibition of fungi (321).
Friederich August Johannes Löffler (DE) made a thorough
investigation of and perfected the technique of staining bacterial flagella. He
discovered that quite often the method had to be varied slightly with each
different species of bacterium being stained. He discovered that the reaction
in its relation to H-ion concentration is critical and that no one H-ion
concentration is best for all bacteria (1016).
Richard Altmann (DE) introduced the technique of freeze-drying to
preserve tissue (22).
Leon F. Shackell (US) reported on the principle of
vacuum desiccation from the frozen state, a process essential to the production
of a highly soluble product, which would retain its original biological
properties (1482).
Pierre Miquel (FR) obtained urease
from bacteria (1133).
Theodor Boveri (DE) and Jean-Louis-Léon Guignard (FR) established
that the nuclei of egg and spermatozoon furnish to the zygote equivalent
complements of chromosomes (214; 712).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) reached the same conclusion as
Boveri and Guignard above and concluded that, the polar body does not represent
a part of the germ plasm removed from the egg but has, in fact, ''the
morphological value of rudimentary egg cells" (783).
Knud Helge Faber (DK), Ludwig Brieger (DE), and Carl Fraenkel (DE)
showed that the symptoms of tetanus (lockjaw) are due to a toxin produced by
the bacterium Clostridium tetani (239; 560; 561).
Willoughby Dayton Miller (US) elucidated the bacteriology of
dental caries (1127).
Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald (LV-DE) laid the theoretical groundwork
for the membrane theory of nerve conduction. He suggested that the electrical potential at artificial
semipermeable membranes was due to their selective permeability to ions
("ion sieve") (1229).
Julius Bernstein (DE), in 1902, stated his membrane theory as
follows, "The electrical currents observed in many living organs of animals
and plants have been the objects of much research. We detect such currents in
muscles, nerves, secretory glands, and electric organs of fish as well as in
plant tissue. It seems likely that all these currents have a similar, if not
the same basis, and that their strength and potency depends on the structural
conditions and chemical composition of the cells making up each organ." He
postulated that the membrane of the nerve cell can selectively pass certain
kinds of ions. Bernstein suggested that nerves are normally polarized with
positive ions on the outside and negative ions inside and that the current he
measured was the change in this polarization. Obviously when equilibrium is
reached an electrical potential exists across the membrane - the transmembrane potential. The nerve
impulse is simply a localized region of depolarization,
or loss of this transmembrane potential, that travels down the nerve fiber with
the membrane potential being immediately restored behind it (160; 161). This is remarkably close to what is
currently accepted as how a nerve impulse is generated.
Ralph Stayner Lillie (US) started experiments in 1909, which
supported the membrane theory of nerve conduction (993).
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (GB) supported this theory with experiment (804; 805).
Theodore T. Groom (GB) and Jacques Loeb (US) using barnacle
nauplii, made the first detailed study of marine larval swimming behavior. In
these papers, it was demonstrated that the sign of naupliar phototaxis could be
reversed by modifying light intensity and that light in the ultraviolet region
of the spectrum is especially effective in causing photopositive nauplii to
become photonegative (705; 706).
Wolfgang F. Ewald (US) demonstrated that ultraviolet irradiation
causes mortality among barnacle nauplii, thus providing an adaptive explanation
for the negative phototaxis observed by Groom and Loeb (554).
Francois-Gilbert Viault (FR) found that following 23 days at 4392
meters of altitude his red cell count rose from 5 to 8 million per cubic
millimeter (1654). He later confirmed that
hemoglobin concentrations rise on ascent to higher altitudes.
Nicolas Maurice Arthus (FR), Calixte Pages (FR) and L. Sabbatini
(FR) observed that precipitation of calcium inhibits coagulation, and that this
effect is reversed when sufficient calcium is re-added. Calcium is not required
for the reaction of thrombin with fibrinogen but is required for the conversion
of the hypothetical prothrombin to thrombin (46; 1325; 1412).
Almroth Edward Wright (GB) showed that citrate keeps blood in a
liquid state by decalcifying it and that citrate appears to more suitable for
purposes of blood transfusion than is oxalate (1823; 1824).
H. Griesbach (DE) found that ammonium citrate inhibits blood
clotting (704).
Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing (NL) found that blood mixed with
citrate remained fluid, realizing that the effect was due to the affinity of
calcium for citric acid (1280).
Paul Morawitz (DE) synthesized various observations into one of
the first formulations of the biochemistry of blood coagulation: prothrombin,
he hypothesized, was converted into the enzyme thrombin by “thrombokinase”
(tissue factor) in the presence of calcium; thrombin, in turn, converted fibrinogen
to fibrin (1151).
Joseph Lister (GB) maintained that the blood has no spontaneous
tendency to clot but that it only clots when brought into contact with a
foreign body (998).
Paul Morawitz (DE) called these “zymoplastic substances” thrombokinase, and William Henry Howell
(US) later denominated them "tissue thromboplastins" (factor III) (833; 1151).
John Mellanby (GB) described the inhibition of blood coagulation
by oxalate and citrate (1098).
Arthur Edwin Boycott (GB) and Claude Gordon Douglas (GB)
transfused rabbits with allogeneic blood using the citrate method. A total of
0.4-0.5 g of sodium citrate was found to be enough to keep any quantity up to
about 100cc of rabbit blood liquid at 37° C for many hours, provided that blood
was obtained from the first main gush which issues from the divided carotid (225).
Albert Hustin (BE) performed the first transfusion of citrated
blood given to a human (839).
Francis Peyton Rous (US) and Jerrold R. Turner (US) found that
glucose and sucrose had a marked effect in inhibiting lysis of red blood cells
during storage (1381). Later studies showed glucose to
be the superior of the two. A combination of glucose and citrate became the
storage solution of choice for red blood cells.
Oswald Hope Robertson (GB-US), in 1917,
built an ice chest from two ammunition cases, took 22 units of blood to a
casualty-clearing station and used them to resuscitate Canadian soldiers judged
too deep in shock for surgery. Eleven of the 20 recipients lived. This was the
first use of cold blood storage or "banked blood". Robertson soon
built a donor and transfusion service that would be recognized today. He found
that if the blood of donors is taken under sterile conditions and mixed with a
sterile sodium citrate solution it could be preserved in the cold for a month.
This discovery also directly led to the establishment of the first blood
'depot' by the British during World War I. Robertson is credited as the creator
of blood depots (blood banks) (789; 1368; 1369). Note: The 1918b article describes the
"Robertson's bottle" for transfusing blood. It was widely used after
the war. See Luis Agote, 1914 and
Sergei Sergeivitch, 1931.
Percy Oliver (GB), as the secretary of the British Red
Cross, established the world's first blood donor service in 1921. Volunteers
were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their blood group.
Sergei Sergeevich Sergeivitch (RU), in 1931, introduced the blood
bank into the practice of medicine in a Leningrad hospital. Ref
John H. Ferguson (US) discovered the presence of intrinsic
thromboplastin under the name of tryptase (570).
Bernard Fantus (US), in 1937, started a hospital blood bank at
Cook County Hospital in Chicago, IL. Blood was collected into a 2% solution of
sodium citrate and refrigerated (566). Note: Fantus is credited with coining
the phrase “blood bank”.
Carl Fraenkel (DE) found that he could immunize guinea pigs
against living Corynebacterium
diphtheriae by giving an injection of a three-week-old heat killed (60-70°C
for one hour) culture of the same species (611).
Emil Adolf Behring (DE) and Shibasaburo Kitasato (JP) discovered
antitoxin while working on immunity to tetanus
and diphtheria. They reported that
when rabbits and mice were immunized to tetanus
a protective element was present in the cell-free serum, which neutralized the
effect of the toxin. This capacity was so durable that it still exhibited its
activity when the immune serum was transferred to the bodies of other animals.
They referred to the serum as possessing an antitoxic quality (133; 134).
Augosto Ducrey (IT) described the infection and isolated the
bacterium, which now bears his name,
Haemophilus ducreyi, from a lesion of the venereal disease called soft chancre or chancroid (476-479).
F. Bezancon (FR), V. Griffon (FR), and L.C. Le Sourd (FR) inoculated
the forearms of human volunteers with culture-purified organisms
and produced characteristic soft chancres from which the same
organism was re-isolated (167).
F. Bezancon (FR), V. Griffon (FR), and L.C. Le Sourd (FR) obtained
the organism in axenic culture (168).
Hans Eppinger (DE) was the first to describe an infection in
humans caused by Nocardia spp. He called it Cladothrix, which was changed to
Nocardia in 1895 by Blanchard. The fungus-like organism (a branching type of
actinomycete) caused lesions in pulmonary and central nervous system tissues (nocardiosis) (546).
Johann Gottfried Hallier; Hans Gottfried Hallier (DE) insisted
that only the broadest possible basis was sufficient for establishing the
taxonomy of plants. He included not only the morphology of reproductive
structures, but added comparative morphology of the vegetative organs;
comparative anatomy, ontogeny and embryology; phytochemistry, physiology and
ecology; structure of pollen and seed coat; relation to climate, seasons and
the surrounding organic world, plant geography, paleophytology, etc (732-738). See, page 154 of the 1905 reference for
articles going back to 1890.
Douglas Houghton Campbell (US) discovered the precise manner of
formation of the archegonia and antheridia in the eusporangiate ferns. He also
linked the ferns with the liverworts by way of Anthoceros (271-280).
Jacques Loeb (DE-US) introduced the concepts of forced movements, tropisms and animal conduct.
He vehemently opposed any anthropomorphic or teleological interpretations of
animal behavior (1007; 1008).
Giovanni
Batista Grassi (IT) and Raimondo Feletti (IT) discovered and described avian
malaria (699; 700).
Thomas Henry Huxley (GB) and Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (DE)
suggested that muscle fibrils are the likely location for the contractile
mechanism (543; 842).
Vittorio Mibelli (IT) described and named angiokeratoma as, "The presence of small red spots could be
seen, which resembled telangiectases and were covered already by a slightly
elevated and horny epidermis…. The external appearance of the small tumors
suggested the diagnosis of keratome." (1115)
David Paul von Hansemann (DE) proposed the concept of anaplasia of
cancer cells. This theory postulates that the increased growth potential of the
cancer cell was accompanied by a loss of differentiation and that asymmetrical
mitoses were a characteristic of cancer (1688). He described changes in the
chromosomes of cancer cells (1689).
Franz König (DE) gave a detailed description of joint involvement
in hemophilia (925).
Allvar Gullstrand (SE) presented his theory of astigmatism and
elucidated how the eye accomplishes intracapsular accommodation (714-718).
Pierre Marie (FR) described hypertrophic
osteoarthropathy (digital
Hippocratism) as follows: “The volume of all the phalanges of the fingers
are increased, but above all in the case of the phalangette. The nail is
enlarged; it has the Hippocratic appearance of a parrot's beak” (1065).
Odilon Marc Lannelongue (FR) performed the first thyroid
transplantation, for treatment of cretinism (964).
William Rose (GB) performed a Gasserian
ganglionectomy for trigeminal neuralgia;
the patient lived for at least two years (1375).
Ludwig Courvoisier (CH) did important work concerned surgery to
the biliary tract. It was he who developed the operation of cholecystectomy and
he was one of the first surgeons to remove a stone from the common bile duct.
The well-known Courvoisier's law is
named after him stating that 'if in the presence of jaundice, the gallbladder
is palpable, then the jaundice is unlikely to be due a stone.' He in his book The Pathology and Surgery of the Gallbladder
first proposed this (349).
Charles
Alfred Ballance (GB) popularized the operation of radical mastoidectomy for
advanced middle ear infection in 1890 (79).
Ballance also demonstrated cranial base approaches to treat infectious thrombophlebitis of the
petrosal, lateral, and cavernous sinus.
Themistocles
Gluck (DE), during the 1880s, performed 14 total
joint replacements; five of them were still in function in 1891: three total
knee replacements, one elbow, and one wrist total replacement. All total joints
were made from ivory. For their fixation inside the marrow cavity Gluck often
used a special form of very hot "bone cement" that hardened within
one minute (670; 671).
Robert Lawson Tait (GB) developed an operation for placenta praevia (placenta partially
or wholly blocks the neck of the uterus at birth) (1568). Note: Edoardo Pòrro (IT) developed this operation
contemporaneously.
Friedrich Trendelenburg (DE) described the Trendelenburg position
for surgery as, “If one places the body of a patient on the operating table in
such a way that the symphysis pubis forms the highest point of the trunk and
the long axis of the trunk forms an angle of at least 45 degrees with the
horizontal” (1616).
Sergei Sergeievich Korsakoff (RU) described a special form of psychic disorder, which occurs in
conjunction with multiple neuritis. This
disorder is now known as Korsakoff's
psychosis (929; 1657).
The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science in New York established
the Biological Laboratory at the southwest corner of Cold Spring Harbor, Long
Island, NY. Charles B. Davenport (US) became its first director. In 1904, he
persuaded Andrew Carnegie to found for him the Station for Experimental
Evolution on the same site as the Biological Laboratory. Davenport became the
director of both. The two were formally joined in 1962 as the Cold Spring
Harbor Laboratory.
In the United States, the first sewage treatment plant using chemical
precipitation was built in Worcester, Massachusetts (1103).
The journal Zentralblatt für
Allgemeine Pathologie und Pathologische Anatomie was founded.
1891
Johannes Diderik van der Waals (NL) presented his equation of
state for gases and liquids, which explains molecular behavior when a substance
is composed of two species (1641).
Hermann Nordtmeyer (DE) introduced a new filtering medium made of
the compressed infusorial (diatomaceous) earth known as Kieselguhr (1202).
Alfred Werner (DE) formulated a new approach to inorganic
chemistry that allowed the formulation of atomic groups about a metal ion. As
applied to heme, the theory led to the recognition that the ferrous iron is
hexacoordinate, with four valencies satisfied by the nitrogens of the pyrroles
of the porphyrin ring and the other two available for other interactions (e.g.,
with O2, CO, imidazole, pyridine) (887).
Lead arsenate insecticide was first used as an insecticide for
control of the gypsy moth. Carbon bisulfide was first tested for control of wireworms.
Creosote oil was discovered as an ovicide for gypsy moth (1478).
Ernst August Schulze (CH) discovered that the woody substances of
plants contain polysaccharides (hemicelluloses and pentosans) which are much
more readily hydrolyzed to sugars by very dilute mineral acids than is
cellulose. Among the sugars formed in this way he detected galactose, mannose,
and the pentose sugars, arabinose and xylose. He coined the term hemicellulose (1456).
Isidor Traube (DE) discovered that many organic solutes are
adsorbed at a water/air interface, with the polar ends of molecules in the
water and non-polar parts sticking out into the air (1615).
Karl Voit (DE) showed that fasting hens stored glycogen in their
livers not only when they were supplied with glucose but also when sucrose,
fructose, or maltose were in their diet in place of glucose (1664).
Hermann Henking (DE) observed an unpaired chromatin-element in spermatogenesis of Pyrrhocoris apterus (Hemiptera) so that sperms of two different
types were produced, half with and half without this element. Henking did not
realize that the element was a chromosome, nor did he associate it with sex. He
called it x. He also demonstrated
that reductive division begins with conjugation of chromosomes, two by two (769). This is the first indication
for a connection between chromosomes and sex.
Johannes Rückert (DE) suggested that the conjugants had come one
from each parent, and that they could exchange material (1398).
William Austin Cannon (US) based on his studies of cotton helped
provide a cytological basis for the Mendelian laws (282).
Ernst Malachowski (PL) stained malarial parasites using borax
methylene blue, which had polychromed because of its age (2-3 years). The
plasmodial chromatin took on a red-purple color (1056).
Dimitri Leonidovich Romanowsky; Dimitri Leonidovich Romanovsk (RU)
developed a stain which allowed for differential identification of
blood parasites, including malaria (1371).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) selectively stained mast cells using a dye
called dahlia (510).
Liberty Hyde Bailey, Jr. (US) published the first detailed study
of the growth of plants under artificial light (76; 77).
Sigmund Exner (AT) explained how the compound eye functions,
describing the compound eye physiology of insects and crustaceans (557).
Joseph F. Payne (GB) remarked on the infectious nature of warts (1272).
Merton B. Waite (US) discovered that bees and wasps are vectors of
fire blight, a bacterial disease of pears and other orchard fruits (1720).
Pierre-Jean Achalme (FR) was the first to cultivate Clostridium perfringens. He incorrectly supposed it to cause articular rheumatism (9).
William Henry Welch (US) and George Henry Falkiner Nuttall (US-GB)
isolated and characterized the same organism from the foamy organs of a
cadaver, naming it Bacillus aerogenes
capsalatus (1209).
Adolf Schenkl (CZ), Rudolf Ritter von Limbeck (CZ), Emanuel Zaufal
(CZ), et al. used animal studies to verify that a gram-positive spore-forming
rod-shaped microorganism that grew only under anaerobic conditions, was the
etiologic agent of gas gangrene (1442). Note: this clinical entity is also called clostridial myonecrosis.
Eugen Fraenkel (DE) isolated this organism and designated it Bacillus phlegmonis emphysematosae (612). It has
been called by various names including: Clostridium
welchii, Clostridium perfringens
(L. perfringens, breakthrough), and
Fraenkel’s bacillus.
Gregory Juckett (US), Genevieve
Bardwell (US), Bruce McClane (US), and Susan Brown (US) found that Clostridium
perfringens is the common leavening agent in salt rising bread (877).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) during his studies of ricin from the castor bean
and abrin from the Indian licorice seed showed that each of these vegetable
poisons induces the production of an antitoxin, which is specific. He also discovered
that there is always a delay (latent period) in the production of antitoxin
following the administration of toxin. In mice this production did not begin to
appear until the fifth day post-inoculation. It was in this article that
Ehrlich coined the term antibody (511).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) pointed out that there is a difference between
active and passive immunization. He injected mice with abrin, ricin, robin (a
phytotoxin from locust tree bark), or tetanus poisons and showed that males
highly immunized with abrin are incapable, when paired with normal females, of
transmitting their immunity to their offspring, in other words the immunizing
principle is not carried in the genes of the sperma. Female mice immunized
before conception bore immune young, but the immunity was of a passive type in
that it disappeared in a relatively short space of time. Further, the immunity
was not transmitted in the next generation and was not truly hereditary.
Investigating the matter still further, Ehrlich observed that immunity in the
offspring of mice actively immunized against ricin lasted longer than the
immunity of adult mice passively immunized with antitoxin. To test this further
he took the young of the non-immunized mother and put them to the breast of an
immunized mother and the young of the immunized mother and put them to the
breast of a non-immunized mother. The result was conclusive. The young of the
immunized mother lost their immunity while sucking the normal mother, whereas
the young of the non-immune mother put to the breast of an immunized mouse
rapidly developed an immunity, which must have been lactogenic (512; 513).
Rudolf Fischl (DE) and Gustav von
Wunscheim (AT) found diphtheria antitoxin in fetal blood (585).
Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (DE) made his much-awaited
announcement of the composition of his remedy for tuberculosis. It was a simple
culture extract, which was soon referred to as Koch’s Lymph and later became known
as tuberculin (915).
Emil Adolf Behring (DE) and Shibasaburo Kitasato (JP) used their
anti-diphtheria toxin to treat humans for the first time on Christmas night,
1891 (1763). The
results were disappointing.
Alexander T. Glenny (GB), Barbara Hopkins (GB) and Gaston Ramon
(FR) produced an effective toxoid
vaccine to diphtheria. With
subsequent improvements this became one of the most effective vaccines
available in medicine. See, Glenny,
Hopkins, and Ramon, 1923.
Sydney Arthur Monkton Copeman (GB) showed that glycerin acts as a
germicide when added to the lymph used in vaccination. He demonstrated this at
the London International Hygeine Congress of 1891 (340). Note: As glycerin came
to be widely used, it reduced transmission of harmful microbes via the lymph.
Vaccine lymph is the fluid and some particulate matter collected from the vesicles
of vaccinia infection, and used for active immunization against smallpox.
Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch (DE) separated developing sea urchin
embryos at the two-cell stage and found that each of the cells would form a
complete, though small larva. He realized that if each half-egg forms a whole
rather than a half-embryo, then an interaction must occur between the two cells
to restrict their potentials in normal development. Driesch's theory of totipotency contradicted
Wilhelm Roux's mosaic theory (459). Driesch went on to show that up
to the four-cell stage separated blastomeres would develop into perfect
embryos, each of reduced size (461).
Walter Heape (GB) was the first to achieve normal embryonic
development and birth following the transfer of a fertilized ovum (zygote) from
one female to the uterus of another variety of the same animal (rabbits) (759).
Gregory Goodwin Pincus (US) and Ernst Vincenz Enzmann (US)
isolated a rabbit ovum, fertilized it in a watch glass then reimplanted it in a
rabbit doe other than the one, which furnished the oocyte. A successful
pregnancy was thus inaugurated in the unmated recipient (1302).
Trasaburo
Araki (JP) and Hermann Zillessen (DE) found that if they interrupted oxygen
supply to muscles in mammals and birds, lactic acid was formed and increased.
This was the first demonstration of the relationship between tissue hypoxia and
the formation of lactate (35-38; 1855).
William Maddock Bayliss (GB) and Ernest Henry Starling (GB)
demonstrated a delay of about 0.13 seconds between atrial stimulation and
ventricular depolarization (later called the PR interval) (124).
Paul Guttmann (DE) and Paul Ehrlich (DE) were the first to report
the antimalarial properties of a synthetic, rather than a natural, material
when they described the clinical cure of two patients after oral administration
of a thiazine dye, methylene blue (720).
Luigi Luciani (IT) distinguished three stages of starvation in
hunger of man, physiological inanition (exhaustion), and pathological inanition (1031).
George Redmayne Murray (GB) treated myxedema
(hypothyroidism) successfully with typhoid extreact (1170).
John Benjamin Murphy (US) invented Murphy’s button, used to rapidly join the ends of a divided
intestine. This devise revolutionized abdominal surgery (1166).
Luigi Luciani (IT-DE) proposed that the cerebellar region of the
brain functions as a regulator of tonic and static motor activity. From his
experimental results he assigned a generalized (unitary) refining role to the
cerebellum such that it acts on voluntary movements initiated by higher centers (1030).
Friedrich Maass (DE) was the first to clinically describe
closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). He resuscitated a teenager
for 60 minutes with closed-chest cardiac massage in 1891 (with return of mental
function) and described that the optimal technique was to apply forceful
pressure and to do so at a rapid rate (1035).
William Bennett Kouwenhoven (US), William R. Milnor (US), G. Guy
Knickerbocker (US), and William R. Chesnut (US) performed extensive closed
chest defibrillation experiments in dogs (933).
Henry T. Bahnson (US), in 1958, resuscitated a two-year-old child
whose heart was in ventricular fibrillation with the combined method of
external cardiac compression and closed chest defibrillation (74).
Otto Bollinger (DE) described a delayed
traumatic apoplexy he called traumatische Spät-Apoplexie. Today this
condition is called delayed traumatic intracerebral hematoma or
(DTICH) (194).
Heinrich Irenaeus Quincke (DE) introduced the lumbar puncture as a
diagnostic and therapeutic technique; using it to accurately measure pressure
at the beginning and the end of the procedure, measure protein and sugar
values, and describe the low sugar occurring in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
in purulent meningitis. He diagnosed tuberculous meningitis by demonstrating
tubercle bacilli in the CSF and was the first person to puncture the lateral
ventricle to obtain CSF in infants with hydrocephalus (1326; 1328).
Walter Essex Wynter (GB) performed lumbar puncture to relieve
spinal fluid pressure in four cases of tubercular meningitis (1834).
Ludwik
Rydygier; Ludwig Anton Rydygier von Ruediger (PL-DE), in 1891, presented
another new concept in urinary tract surgery, namely grafting the ends of a
ureter damaged over a fairly long distance into the abdominal integuments and,
in a second stage of the operation, making up the loss with a duct formed by a
flap of skin. Ref
Berthold Earnest Hadra (US) introduced spine wiring to treat
instability (723).
Marin-Théodore Tuffier (FR) used inhalational anesthesia
administered under pressure to successfully remove the apex of a tuberculous
lung; he even added an inflatable cuff around the tube inserted in the trachea
to ensure a gas-tight fit (1621; 1622). Tuffier was ahead of his time.
Ivan Magill (GB) and Edgar Stanley Rowbotham (GB), working at
Gillies' plastic-surgery unit, found their way back to the simplicity of the
endotracheal tube and positive pressure (1050; 1393).
Ralph Milton Waters (US) perfected an apparatus for administering anesthetics. At one end is a mask
which fits over the face of the patient, at the other is a rubber bag. Respiration can be controlled
either by squeezing the anesthetic bag by hand or by using a small motor (1738; 1739).
Georg Avellis (DE) described Alvellis’
paralysis syndrome, a condition characterized by paralysis of the soft
palate and vocal cords on one side and loss of pain sensation and temperature
sense on the other side, including the extremities, trunk, and neck. It usually
results from occlusion of the vertebral artery in lesions of the nucleus
ambiguous and pyramidal tract. In the original description, the vagus and
glossopharyngeal nerves were involved; concomitant involvement of the
neighboring cranial nerves was observed later (58).
Guido Werdnig (AT) and Johann Hoffmann (DE) described an infantile
familial form of progressive spinal muscular atrophy resulting from
degeneration of the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord (Werdnig-Hoffmann syndrome) (807-809; 1761; 1762).
Alexandr Petrovich Karpinsky (RU) was trained as a geologist and
became an expert paleontologist. From fossil remains of ammonids he was able to
relate ontogenesis and phylogenesis of these animals to their historical
development. He constructed a genealogical tree of the ammonids and thus
determined their phylogenetic relationships (879; 881).
Deutsche
Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde was founded.
Skandinavische
Archiv fur Physiologie was founded. It became Acta
Physiologica Scandinavica in 1939.
1892
"Even if I erred and the experiment threatened my life, I
would look Death calmly in the eye, for it would not have been a frivolous
suicide; I would die in the service of science like a soldier on the field of
honor. Health and life are indeed very high earthly goods, but not after all
the highest for human goods. Man, who wants to stand in a higher position than
the animal, must be willing to sacrifice even life and health for higher, ideal
goods." Max Josef von Pettenkofer (DE) referring to a famous experiment in
which he drank a diluted culture of the cholera vibrio (906).
K. Bratuscheck (DE) was the first to study phase relations within
the microscope (230).
Julius Rheinberg (GB) and Alexander Eugen Conrady (GB) obtained
photographs of a fine grating with a phase-contrast microscope (337; 1356; 1357).
Fritz Zernicke (NL) explained the physical principles of
phase-contrast microscopy (1851-1853). The 1934
article announced Fritz Zernicke's discovery of the phase contrast principle.
Lead arsenate was first proposed as an insecticidal spray for
codling moth control. The first published results of the use of kerosene as
means of mosquito control was made. This was the result of the accidental
discovery made in 1867 following spilling of kerosene into a mosquito-infested
watering trough while filling a lantern. The first record of dinitrophenols as
insecticides was made in Germany (1478).
Harold Picton (GB) and S. Ernest Linder (GB) were the first to
demonstrate electric charge directly when they measured the movement of
colloidal particles, including hemoglobin molecules in solution, under the influence
of an electric field. This was the origin of moving boundary electrophoresis (996; 1300).
William Bate Hardy (GB) studied the migration of egg white in an
electrical field and found that under the influence of a constant current the
albumin moves with the negative stream if the reaction of the fluid is
alkaline, with the positive stream if the reaction is acid (743). A year
later he discovered that proteins have an isoelectric point, a pH at which they
lack a net charge and therefore will not migrate. He therefore appreciated that
pH could have a profound effect on the net charge of a protein further noting
that at the isoelectric point a protein tends to coagulate or precipitate (744).
Arne Vilhelm Kaurin Tiselius (SE), Stig Claesson (SE) and Paul
König (AT) developed apparatus, which can effectively separate mixtures of
proteins based on their electrophoretic mobility. Tiselius used a special tube
arranged like a rectangular U within which the proteins could move and separate.
Lenses were designed to detect changes in the index of refraction as protein
concentration changed in the developing bands. It was by this method that blood
proteins were first separated into albumin and globulin fractions. This
technique is referred to as moving-boundary electrophoresis. König used
filter paper as a stabilizing matrix for electrophoresis (926; 1606; 1608). See, Hardy, 1899.
Arne Vilhelm Kaurin Tiselius (SE) and Elvin Abraham Kabat (US)
used electrophoresis to show that antibodies make up part of the gamma globulin
fraction of serum. They also found that antibodies are not uniform in
electrical charge or sedimentation characteristics. This was the first clue
that antibodies are physically heterogeneous. The alpha, beta, and gamma
notations were coined by Tiselius and first used in the 1937b article (1607; 1609).
Johann Friedrich Miescher, Jr. (CH), with remarkable insight,
wrote his uncle and expressed his thoughts that nuclein might convey the
hereditary message, "just as the words and concepts of all languages can
find expression in 24-30 letters of the alphabet" (192).
Leo Lilienfeld (AT) coined the word nucleohistone to apply to material extractable with distilled water
from leukocytes or minced thymus and precipitatable from the aqueous extracts
with acetic acid (991; 992).
Martinus Willem Beijerinck (NL) published his work on tobacco mosaic disease, showing that the
causal agent had many of the qualities associated with a living organism. He
hypothesized that the agent must be incorporated into host cells before it
could reproduce and that its reproduction was linked to the reproduction of the
host cell. These papers along with those of Adolf Eduard Mayer (DE-NL), in 1886,
and Dimitrii Iosifovich Ivanowsky; Dimitrii Iwanowski; Dimitrii Ivanovski; Dmitry
Ivanovsky (RU), in 1892, and Erwin Baur (DE), in 1904, are considered to show the
co-discoveries of plant diseases caused by filterable agents (viruses) (122; 139; 140; 143; 851-853; 1084; 1085). Note:
Beijerinck is credited with being the first to call these infectious agents virus
from the latin word for "toxin." He had first called them contagium
vivum fluidum. Adolf Eduard Mayer (DE-NL) coined the name, tobacco
mosiac disease (1083).
Friederich August Johannes Löffler (DE) and Paul Frosch (DE)
demonstrated that the causative agent of foot-and-mouth
disease of cattle could pass through a bacteriological filter. This paper
represents the first evidence for the presence of animal pathogens, which we
now call filterable viruses. They concluded "that the activity of the
filtrate is not due to the presence in it of a soluble substance, but due to
the presence of a causal agent capable of reproducing. This agent must then be
obviously so small that the pores of a filter which will hold back the smallest
bacterium will still allow it to pass… If it is confirmed by further studies …
that the action of the filtrate … is actually due to the presence of such a
minute living being, this brings up the thought that the causal agents of a
large number of other infectious diseases … which up to now have been sought in
vain, may also belong to this smallest group of organisms." (1017; 1018) Note: the first virus, the first vertebrate virus, the first
picornavirus
Eugenio Centanni (IT), Ezio Savonuzzi (IT),
Arnaldo
Maggiora (IT), Gian Luoa Valenti (IT), Alois Lode (AT), and J. Gruber (AT)
demonstrated the filterability (viral nature) of the etiological
agent of fowl plague (300; 301; 1006; 1048).
Note: the first orthomyxovirus
Arnaldo Maggiora (IT) and Gian Luoa Valenti (IT) concluded that
the etiological agent of fowl plague
behaved as a true virus (1049).
Émile Marchoux (FR) reported successful in vitro culture of the fowl plague virus (1061).
Werner
Schafer (DE) determined that fowl plague
(FP) virus is one of the influenza A viruses (1437).
Frederick
Cooper Curtice (US) was widely scorned by his peers when he proposed the vector
theory: that ticks could transmit a disease-causing agent to animals, including
humans (381; 382; 1019).
Bulletin No.
1 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, issued in 1893, announced the momentous
discovery that infection can be carried from one animal to another through the
agency of an intermediate host the tick. The disease was Texas cattle fever also known as tick fever and southern
cattle fever. Note: this was the
first demonstration of arthropod transmission of disease. See, Theobald Smith, 1893.
Joseph Barcroft (GB) and John Scott Haldane (GB) designed a
blood-gas manometric apparatus, which was modified by Thomas Gregor Brodie in
1910 and became known as the Warburg apparatus in honor of Otto Heinrich
Warburg (DE). Warburg had devised a method for preparing thin slices of
still-respiring tissue and measuring the uptake of oxygen by the decrease in
pressure in a small flask, this decrease being determined by the change in
level of a fluid in a thin U-shaped tube attached to the flask. Carbon dioxide
was absorbed by a small well of alkaline solution within the flask. Such a
Warburg manometer to which Warburg flasks were attached proved a powerful tool
for studying respiration (100; 728-730; 1730).
Curt Herbst (DE) observed that the blastomeres of
the cleaving sea urchin egg spontaneously separate from each other after a
brief exposure to calcium-free seawater. This produced an elegant method for
isolating undamaged blastomeres and for following their development
independently (774).
Ludwig Edinger (DE) introduced the concept of centrally arising pains (498).
Lewis Erle Shore (GB) found that the tip of the human tongue is
more sensitive to sweet, whereas the edges are more sensitive to sour, and the
base of the tongue is most sensitive to bitter. The mid-dorsum was found to be
insensitive to all tastes. All but the mid-dorsum are sensitive to salty (1498).
George Miller Sternberg (US) found that calves infected with
vaccinia virus produced specific antibody, which could neutralization the virus (1546).
Dmitrii Iosifovich Ivanowski; Dmitrii Iosifovich Iwanowsky;
Dmitrii Iosifovich Ivanovski (RU) demonstrated that the mosaic disease of tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum) could be transmitted by the juice from infected plants which had
been passed through a filter that would stop bacteria (835; 851-853; 1085). Note:
He is one of the co-discoverors of viruses.
Guiseppe Guarnieri (IT) observed homogenous acidophilic inclusion
bodies, 2 to 10 millimicrons in size, in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells from
patients with Variola (smallpox)
(711). These
structures are frequently referred to in the literature as Guarnieri bodies.
Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (DE) isolated Haemophilus influenzae during the
influenza pandemic of 1889 and erroneously thought that it was the causative
agent of influenza, hence its name. This organism may have behaved
synergistically with the virus to produce a more severe disease. It is
sometimes called Pfeiffer’s bacillus (1291; 1293).
William Thompson Sedgwick (US) and John L. Batchelder (US)
demonstrated the relationship of the bacterial count of milk to its sanitary
quality (1468; 1469).
Roland Thaxter (US) first described the Myxobacteria (1582-1584).
Konstantin Wingradoff (RU) was the first to describe infections of
Opisthorchis in humans (1810).
Hans Vogel (DE) discovered the snail and fish hosts and their
roles in the life cycle of Opisthorchi (1663).
Élie Metchnikoff; Ilya Metchinikoff; Iljitj Metchnikov; Iljitj
Metschnikov; Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov; Ilja Metjnikov (RU-FR) presented his theory of cellular immunity.
He noted that phagocytic cells protected invertebrates from some fungus
infections and not from others. He predicted that abnormalities of the
phagocytic cells would compromise host defenses. Metchnikoff indicates that
phagocytes should be considered as an active participant of inflammation, and
inflammation should not be seen only as being deleterious (1105; 1106).
Joseph Marcos Malbran (AR), in Argentina during 1892, discovered
the first case of rhinosporidiosis
when he examined a polyp from the nose. He regarded the infectious agent as a
sporozoon (410).
Guillermo Seeber (AR) thought it was a protozoon when he described
it (1470).
Roberto Johann Wernicke (AR) named it Coccidium seeberia after the protozoal subdivision
Coccidia and his pupil, Guillermo Seeber (AR) (149).
Guillermo
Seeber (AR) then renamed it Rhinosporidium
seeberi (1470).
Roger A. Herr (US), Libero Ajello (US), John W. Taylor (US),
Sarath N. Arseculeratne (LK) and Leonel Mendoza (CR-US)
performed nucleic acid analysis on R.
seeberi and found it to be the only microorganism that is classified in the
class Mesomycetozoea and is pathogenic to mammals and birds (779). The class Mesomycetozoea
includes a heterogeneous group of microorganisms that are at the animal-fungal
boundary and consists of two orders, Dermocystida and Ichthyophonida.
Alejandro Posadas (AR) and Roberto Johann Wernicke (AR) found the
tissue form of coccidioidomycosis in
a patient in Argentina (1315; 1764; 1765).
William Ophüls (US) and Herbert C. Moffitt (US) demonstrated the
mycotic nature of the infection (1218; 1219). The
etiological agent was named Coccidioides
immitis under the mistaken impression that it was a protozoan. The disease
is usually an acute, benign, self-limiting, respiratory infection, which may
occasionally become systemic and life threatening.
Francis Galton (GB), a cousin to Charles Robert Darwin, was the
first to suggest that fingerprints would be useful in tracing criminals (640; 641). Note:
In ancient Babylon c. 1.9 k BCE, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for
business transactions. Clay seals bearing friction ridge impressions were used
during both the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC - 220 AD).
Julius Wolff (DE) stated, “the external form and internal
architecture of a bone are related to the forces which act upon it.” This is
known as Wolff’s Law (1819).
Johann von Mikulicz-Radecki (PL-AT) is generally credited with the
first description of Sjögren’s syndrome. In 1892, he described a 42-year-old
man with enlargement of the parotid and lacrimal glands associated with a
round-cell infiltrate and acinar atrophy (1707).
Carl Ludwig Schleich (DE) was the first to demonstrate
infiltration anesthesia (local anesthesia) on humans. He used dilute cocaine (1448).
Arnold Pick (CZ) did work on lobar
cortical atrophy, which made him famous (Pick’s disease) (1299).
This is a rare and fatal degenerative disease of the nervous system. Clinically
there are major overlaps with Alzheimer's
presenile dementia.
Sape Talma
(NL) described acquired myotonia, a
condition marked by prolonged contraction and spasm of muscles. Talma's disease usually develops in
adult life after trauma, acute infection, or intoxication (1574).
Josef Albert Amann (DE) and Gotthard Schubert (DE) independently
developed an operation used in cases of congenital absence of vagina, making an
artificial vagina from the ampulla recti.
Schubert created an artificial vagina using transplants from the anus and
rectum (23; 1454).
William Stewart Halsted (US) performed
the first successful ligation of the left subclavian artery (740).
William
Arbuthnot Lane (GB) introduced mastoid drainage in purulent otitis media with specially designed
chisels and gouges (956).
Clinton Hart Merriam (US) hypothesized that animals and plants are
restricted in their northward distribution by the total quantity of heat during
the season of growth and reproduction, and the mean temperature restricts their
southward distribution during the hottest part of the year. This established
life zones (1101; 1102).
Marie Eugène François Thomas Dubois (NL) found a fossil skullcap,
teeth, and femur in the Javan town of Trinil. He insisted that these fossils
belonged to the same type individual, a missing link between humans and apes. These
finds were reported in the quarterly and annual reports to the Dutch East
Indies government but not to the scientific community at large until 1920 (470-472). Opposition
to his claim remained widespread and many doubted that the bones all belonged
to the same individual. He adopted the name Anthropithecus
erectus then changed it to Pithecanthropus,
which had been coined earlier by the German zoologist Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August Haeckel; Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Häcke; Ernst Heinrich Philipp
August Heckel, calling his discoveries Pithecanthropus
erectus (upright ape-man) (1591). This
specimen of Homo erectus is commonly
called Java man. Note: Estimated to be between 700 K and 1M years old,
it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest hominid fossils ever found,
and it remains the type specimen for Homo erectus.
Davidson Black (CA) coined the name Sinanthropus pekinensis,
for what was popularly called Peking man (182; 183). Note:
Peking Man is a group of fossil specimens of Homo erectus, dated from
roughly 750 K years ago.
Franz Weidenreich (DE-US) and Lucile Swan (DE) prepared the
original reconstruction from the fossil remains of several different
individuals found in the caves at Zhoukoudian, China (1753; 1754).
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (FR), a Jesuit priest, also did early
work on Peking man, a Homo erectus,
also known as Pithecanthropus pekinenses
and Sinanthropus pekinensis (1580; 1581).
Towikromo (ID) discovered another Homo erectus, Sangiran 17, in 1969 in Java, Indonesia.
Sastrohamidjojo Sartono (ID) first described it as Pithecanthropus erectus in 1971 (1435). Modern paleontologists consider this
Java man to be Homo erectus.
Andrew Taylor
Still (US) founded the first school of osteopathy – the American School of
Osteopathy (now A.T. Still University of the Health Sciences) in Kirksville,
Missouri in 1892 (1620).
The American Psychological Association was formed.
1893
"The mother has supplied a hundred or thousand-fold more
protoplasm to the fertilized egg-cell, competent for development, yet no
greater portion of the hereditary properties than the father." Joseph
Gottlieb Kölreuter (923)
August Karl Johann Valentin Köhler (DE) discovered the manipulation
of light technique, which became known as "Köhler illumination" (920).
Adolf Pinner
(DE) determined the structure of nicotine as known today (1304).
Nikolay A.
Monteverde; Nikolai A. Monteverde (RU) isolated chlorophyll crystals and
determined their spectroscopic properties (1145).
Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli (CH) coined the phrase oligodynamic action to describe the antimicrobial activity of
microgram quantities of silver ions (1710).
Ferdinand
Blum (DE) originated tissue fixation with formaldehyde (188).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) centrifuged frog eggs and
demonstrated the effect of yolk distribution on cleavage (786).
Francisco
Sanfelice (IT) found that nontoxic “pseudotetanus” clostridia when inoculated
into filtrates of the anaerobic spore forming Clostridium
tetani became toxicogenic, the acquired toxicity persisting for
several transfers (1433). This change
could possibly be attributed to the transforming factor (DNA) or the presence
of lysogenic phage.
Bartolomeo Camillo Emilio Golgi (IT) described the anatomy of an
area of the midbrain considered to be the nucleus of the trigeminal nerve and
the trochlear (682; 686).
Bartolomeo Camillo Emilio Golgi (IT) described the histology of
the peptic glands, including the discovery of a system of canaliculi in the
parietal cells of the glands (683; 687).
Bartolomeo
Camillo Emilio Golgi (IT) described
perineuronal nets (PNN) enwrapping the cell bodies and proximal dendrites of
certain neurons in the adult mammalian central nervous system and suggested
that they represent a supportive and protective scaffolding (682; 684).
Antonio
Bertolotto (IT), Gabriella Rocca (IT), Davide Schiffer (IT), Amico Bignami
(US), George Perides (US), Firoz Rahemtulla (US), Marco R. Celio (CH), Ruth
Chiquet-Ehrismann (CH), and Shinobu C. Fujita (JP) showed that perineuronal
nets consist of an accumulation of at least three classes of substances:
hyaluronan, glycoproteins and proteoglycans (162; 176; 298; 634).
Kimberly E. Dow (CA), S. E.
Mirski (CA), John C. Roder (CA), Richard J. Riopelle
(CA), Richard
Asher (US) and Amico Bignami (US) reported that hyaluronan, glycoproteins and
proteoglycans are produced by glial cells (48; 452).
Aurea Guimaraes (US),
Sam Zaremba (US), Susan Hockfield (US), Robert G. Kalb (US), and Hugh J.L. Fryer
(US) found that the formation of PNNs occurs during early postnatal development
and coincides with the maturation of synapses and closure of critical periods (713; 802).
Kate E. Rhodes (GB),
James W. Fawcett (GB) reported that closure of the critical period in both
visual and somatosensory systems is dependent upon normal sensory stimulation during
a discrete developmental timeline. The absence of an appropriate experience
required to form appropriate neuronal synapses during this developmental window
may lead to the formation of incorrect neural connections (1358).
Marine Beurdeley (FR),
Julien Spatazza (FR), Henry H. C. Lee (US), Sayaka Sugiyama (US), Clémence
Bernard (FR), Ariel A. Di Nardo (FR), Takao K. Hensch (FR), and Alain
Prochiantzrecent (FR) noted that changes in the composition of chondroitin
sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) seem to regulate the maturation of synapses (166).
Ciro De Luca (IT),
Michele Papa (IT), Barbara
A. Sorg (US), Sabina Berretta (US), Jordan M. Blacktop (US), James W. Fawcett
(GB), Hiroshi Kitagawa (JP), Jessica C.F. Kwok (GB), Marta Miquel (ES), Wolfgang Härtig (DE), Simon Appel (DE), Anne Suttkus (DE), Jens Grosche (DE), and Dominik Michalski (DE) provided evidence suggesting
that perineuronal nets are altered in various neurodevelopmental and
neurodegenerative disorders associated with changes in brain activity (409; 748; 1524).
Jon
R. Backstrom (US),Giselle P. Lim (US),Michael J. Cullen (US),and Zoltán A. Tökés
(US), Stefan
Lorenzl (US), David
S. Albers (US), Norman
Relkin (US), Terry
Ngyuen (US), Sarah
L. Hilgenberg (US), Jason
Chirichigno (US), Merit
E. Cudkowicz (US), M.
Flint Beala (US), Janusz K.
Rybakowski (PL), Maria Skibinska (PL), Pawel Kapelski (PL), Leszek Kaczmarek
(PL), Joanna Hauser (PL), Gyung W. Kim (KR), Hyun-Jeong Kim (KR), Kyoung-Joo
Cho (KR), Hyun-Woo Kim (KR), Yang-Je Cho (KR), Byung I. Lee (KR), Haoqian Zhang
(US), Mayland Chang (US), Christopher N. Hansen (US), D. Michele Basso (US),
Linda J. Noble-Haeusslein (US), Hidenaga Yamamori (JP), Ryota Hashimoto (JP),
Tamaki Ishima (JP), Fukuko Kishi (JP), Yuka Yasuda (JP), Kazutaka Ohi (JP),
Michiko Fujimoto (JP), Satomi Umeda-Yano (JP), Akira Ito (JP), Kenji Hashimoto
(JP), Masatoshi Takeda (JP), Jialing Liu (US), Yongting Wang (CN), Yosuke
Akamatsu (JP-US), Chih Cheng Lee (US), R. Anne Stetler (US), Michael T. Lawton
(US), Guo-Yuan Yang (CN), Elyse K. Rankin-Gee (US), Paulette A. McRae (US),
Esther Baranov (US), Stephanie Rogers (US), Luke Wandrey (US), Brenda E. Porter
(US), Katarzyna Lepeta (PL), Katarzyna J. Purzycka (PL), Katarzyna
Pachulska-Wieczorek (PL), Marina Mitjans (DE), Martin Begemann (DE), Behnam
Vafadari (PL), Krystian Bijata (PL), Ryszard W. Adamiak (PL), Hannelore
Ehrenreich (DE), Magdalena Dziembowska (PL), and Leszek Kaczmarek (PL) found
that a number of central nervous system diseases exhibit dysregulated
expression of enzymes necessary for perineuronal net cleavage and
reorganization (73; 901; 980; 1001; 1024; 1339; 1409; 1839; 1854). Note: Like the perineuronal
net (PNN), the perinodal
extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds the axonal nodes of Ranvier and appears as
myelination is completed, acting as an ion-diffusion barrier that affects
axonal conduction speed.
Ralph Stockman (GB) refuted the idea that only organic iron is
useful in treating anemia. He demonstrated that inorganic iron has great value
as a nutrient (1555).
Jean Baptiste Emile Vidal (FR) was likely the first to
successfully transmit Herpes fibrilis
from one human to another (1658).
Jean Baptiste Emile Vidal (FR) reported human-to-human
transmission of Herpes simplex virus
infections, identifying the necessity of intimate human contact for spread of
infection (1659; 1788).
A. Lowenstein (DE) performed experimental transmission of Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) from
human lesions to rabbit corneas (1027). This work
supported the proposal put forth in 1893 by Jean Baptiste Emile Vidal (FR) that
person-to-person transmission could result in the spread of cold sores caused
by HSV.
Élie Metchnikoff; Ilya Metchinikoff; Iljitj Metchnikov; Iljitj
Metschnikov; Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov; Ilja Metjnikov (RU-FR), Pierre Paul Emile Roux (FR), Alexandre
Taurelli-Salimbeni (IT), and Brau et Denier (FR) concluded from their
experiments that the cholera vibrio produces a soluble exotoxin which, by
injection, can be used to produce an antitoxin (553; 1107-1110).
Friedrich August Ferdinand Christian Went (NL) was the first to
describe the fungal infection of sugar cane, which became known as Red Rot of
the Stem (1760). He was also the first to
describe the fungus that produced the disease, Colletotrichum falcatum.
August Paul Wassermann (DE) was able to vaccinate guinea pigs
against the intraperitoneal infection with living cholera bacilli. To achieve
this, he found that cholera vibrios or their body substance must be injected in
such doses that a mild specific illness, a general reaction, follows (1737).
Pierre Paul Émile Roux (FR) and Louis Vaillard (FR) demonstrated
that antitoxin is something created or newly produced in the body because of
the injection of toxin. The antitoxin (antibody) was found not to appear
immediately after the injection of the toxin (antigen) (1386).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) obtained twin embryos in the
newt by constricting the egg by means of fine ligatures (784).
Hermann Endres (DE), Amedeo Herlitzka (IT) and Hans Spemann (DE)
confirmed and extended his results with very similar experiments (540; 541; 776-778; 1526-1528).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) proposed that all cells in an
animal embryo receive the same number of chromosomes (785).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) wrote Die Zelle und die Gewebe in which he clearly distinguished
histology as the science of tissues from cytology as the science of cell
structure and function. Cytology as a field of study dates from this work (787).
Charles Reid Barnes (US) proposed that the biological process for
synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of
chlorophyll, under the influence of light should be designated as either photosyntax or photosynthesis. He preferred the word photosyntax, but
photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice (105).
Edmund Beecher Wilson (US) and Albert Prescott Mathews (US) were
able to show that triploblastic animals (those having three germ layers) fall
into two large groups in terms of the mode of mesodermal formation. One group,
including annelids, arthropods, and molluscs, shows the spiral or mosaic pattern
he had observed in the earthworm. See
Edmund Beecher Wilson, 1880. The other group, including the echinoderms,
primitive chordates, and invertebrates, shows a pattern called radial in which the mesoderm originates
from pouches in the endoderm of the gastrula (1799; 1800; 1802; 1804).
Alexander Stanislavovic Dogiel (RU) described bulb-type nerve
endings (444; 445).
Gustave-Édouard Laguesse (FR) named the small cellular clusters of
the pancreas the "Islets of Langerhans", in honor of their discoverer
Paul Langerhans, Jr. (DE) and postulated that the Islets of Langerhans produced
secretions that played a regulatory role in digestion. In the 1893 paper he coined
the term "endocrine" for the first time; to distinguish their
function from that of the exocrine acinar cells (950-952).
Edouard Brissaud (FR) produced an atlas of the human brain drawn
completely by hand (242).
Joseph Jules Déjérine (CH-FR) and Jules Sottas (FR) described Déjérine-Sottas disease (hypertrophic
progressive interstitial neuritis) (418). It is
believed to be an autosomal dominant trait.
Luigi Luciani (IT) succeeded in keeping dogs alive after total
extirpation of the cerebellum and initiated the modern study of cerebellar
function (1032).
Pierre Marie (FR) described hereditary
cerebellar ataxia (1066).
Heinrich Irenaeus Quincke (DE) recognized the syndrome of meningitis serosa (1327).
Paul Emil Flechsig (DE), in 1893,
embarked on the study of myelogenesis in the brain hemispheres and supplemented
his myelogenetic findings with clinical observations and data from degeneration
experiments. He very precisely traced neuronal projections to the visual cortex
from areas such as the lateral geniculate nucleus, then reported that the
fibers from the medial geniculate body to the temporal lobe are concerned with
hearing (589-591; 593-597).
Paul Emil Flechsig (DE) outlined the
auditory radiation (592)
and could list twelve cortical areas that are myelinated – and therefore
functional before birth – as well as twenty-four in which myelinization occurs
after birth; these he arranged chronologically according to the time course of
myelinization.
William Alvin Macewen (GB) recorded 25
cases of brain abscess. Nineteen of these patients came to his attention in
time to undergo surgery, resulting in 18 recoveries. All five of his patients
with extradural abscess recovered; at that time most, other surgeons had 100 percent mortality
rates for this condition (1037). Note:
His achievement remained unequaled until the discovery of penicillin.
Willem Einthoven (NL) initiated electrocardiology when he began to
explore the use of the capillary electrometer to record minute electrical
currents. In 1895, he was able to detect recognizable waves, which he labeled
“P, Q, R, S, and T.” The limitations of capillary electrometers led Einthoven
to develop the first-string galvanometer. This consisted of a delicate
conducting string stretched across a magnetic field. A current flowing through
the thread would cause it to deviate at right angles to the magnetic lines of
force, the extent of deviation being proportional to the strength of the
current. The sensitivity of this instrument meant that it could be used to
detect and measure the varying electrical potentials of the heart, i.e., an
electrocardiograph. It was subsequently applied to the taking of
electroencephalograms (graphs). With his new technique, he standardized the
tracings and formulated the concept of “Einthoven’s triangle” by mathematically
relating the 3 leads (Lead III = Lead II – Lead I). He described bigeminy, complete heart block, “P mitrale,” right and left and
ventricular hypertrophy, atrial
fibrillation and flutter, the U wave, and examples of various heart
diseases. It was Einthoven who introduced the term electrocardiogram and used the abbreviation ‘EKG’ (339; 523-528; 530; 1520). See, Waller, 1887.
Willem Einthoven (NL) documented his clinical use of the
electrocardiogram (529).
Why
PQRST and not ABCDE? The four deflections prior to the correction formula were labeled
ABCD and the 5 derived deflections were labeled PQRST. The choice of P is a
mathematical convention by using letters from the second half of the alphabet.
N has other meanings in mathematics and O is used for the origin of the
Cartesian coordinates. In fact, Einthoven used O ... X to mark the timeline on
his diagrams. P is simply the next letter. A lot of work had been undertaken to
reveal the true electrical waveform of the ECG by eliminating the damping
effect of the moving parts in the amplifiers and using correction formulae. If
you look at the diagram in Einthoven's 1895 paper, you will see how close it is
to the string galvanometer recordings and the electrocardiograms we see today.
The image of the PQRST diagram may have been striking enough to be adopted by
the researchers as a true representation of the underlying form. It would have
then been logical to continue the same naming convention when the more advanced
string galvanometer started creating electrocardiograms a few years later.
Willem Einthoven (NL), George Fahr (NL), and Alfred de Waart (NL)
described the Einthoven triangle as the basis for calculations of
electrocardiograms (531; 532).
Max Cremer (DE) introduced esophageal electrocardiography when he
passed an electrode down the throat of a professional sword swallower. This
technique allows for analysis of atrial stress, ectopic impulse formation, and
conduction abnormalities (357).
Charles C. Wolferth (US) and Francis Clark Wood (US) introduced
the use of chest leads to electrocardiography (1818).
Frank N. Wilson (US), Franklin D. Johnston (US), A. Garrard
MacLeod (US), and Paul S. Barker (US) introduced unipolar chest wall leads for
the electrocardiogram (1805).
Fritz Makiri Schellong (DE), S. Heller (DE), and E. Schwingel (DE)
introduced vector electrocardiography (1440).
H. Frank Macinnis (CA) and Norman Jefferis Holter (US)
independently applied bioelectrical signal telemetry to continuous ECG
recording (818; 819; 1043). Norman
Jefferis Holter (US) and Joseph Anthony Gengerelli (US) had invented
bioelectrical signal telemetry (820).
Emanuel Goldberger (US) introduced the unipolar extremity
electrode system (673).
Ernest Frank (US) designed the corrected orthogonal lead system (615).
Paul Puech (FR), in 1957, was he first to demonstrate electrical
potentials coming from the bundle of His.
This occurred during a catheterization of a patient with tetralogy of Fallot (1322).
Gaston Giraud (FR), Paul Puech (FR), Hugues Latour (FR), and Jean
Hertault (FR) developed intracardiac leads (668).
Dirk Durrer (NL), Leo Schoo (NL), Reinier M. Schuilenburg (NL),
Hein Joan Joost Wellens (NL) and Jan P. Roos (NL) introduced electrical
stimulation of the heart as a diagnostic tool in cardiology. Their epicardial
mapping allowed intraoperative identification of accessory pathways in the
human heart (485; 486; 662).
Benjamin J. Scherlag (US), Sun H. Lau (US), Richard H. Helfant
(US), Walter D. Berkowitz (US), Emmanuel Stein (US), and Anthony N. Damato (US) developed a
catheter technique for recording His
bundle activity in man (1443).
Hein Joan Joost Wellens (NL), Reinier M. Schuilenburg (NL), and
Dirk Durrer (NL) described the mechanism of reentry tachycardia. They founded
the modern era of tachycardia management concerning atrial and ventricular
arrhythmias (1757).
Guy Fontaine (FR), Robert Frank (FR), Gerard Guiraudon (FR),
Jacques Vedel (FR), Yves Grosgogeat (FR), and Christian Cabrol (FR) devised a
method of depicting ventricular late potentials in patients with ventricular
tachycardia. It is believed that late potentials arise in the peripheral zones
of old myocardial infarcts and can be demonstrated in patients with a tendency
toward ventricular tachycardia originating in the area immediately surrounding
the old infarct location (602).
Friedrich Müller (DE) demonstrated that exophthalmic goitre is
accompanied by an increased metabolism (1164).
Aleksei Yakovlievich Kozhevnikov (RU) reported a mild continuous
epilepsia characterized by almost continuous, rhythmic muscular contractions
affecting a limited part of the body for a period of hours, days, or even years (934; 935). It is
called Kozhevnikov’s syndrome I.
Adam Politzer (AT) was the first to describe otosclerosis as a specific disease
fixating the stapes (1309; 1310).
George Ryerson Fowler (US) performed the first known thoracoplasty (609).
Thoracoplasty is the surgical removal of ribs to gain access during surgery or to
collapse the chest wall.
Charles Barrett Lockwood (GB) devised an operation
for radical repair of femoral and inguinal hernia (1005).
César Roux (CH), in 1893, performed reconstruction of the
esophagus with a part of the jejunum translocated to the anterior part of the
thorax (1382).
Ludwik
Rydygier; Ludwig Anton Rydygier von Ruediger (PL-DE) was the
second man to perform this operation. Ref for Rydygier
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (RU), Adolf Strümpell (DE), and
Pierre Marie (FR) were the first to give adequate descriptions which permitted
an accurate diagnosis of ankylosing
spondylitis (AS) prior to severe spinal deformity. AS is also known as Bekhterev Disease, Bechterew's Disease or Marie–Strümpell
Disease (145; 146; 1067; 1561). Note: AS is believed to involve a
combination of genetic and environmental factors. More than 90% of those affected
have a specific human leukocyte antigen known as the HLA-B27 antigen.The
underlying mechanism is believed to be autoimmune or autoinflammatory (1487; 1512).
Josef Breuer (DE) and Sigmund Freud (CZ-AT) discovered the subconscious
mind and introduced psychoanalysis using hypnosis and free-association (235; 236).
Josef Breuer (AT), in 1881, discovered what was called the
"talking cure" (Kaminfagen). A particular female patient obtained
some relief from psychotic symptoms if he could persuade her to talk about her
hallucinations during her autohypnoses. He found that if he could persuade her
to recall in reverse chronological order each past occurrence of a specific
symptom, until she reached the very first occasion, most of them disappeared in
the same way (872).
Louis Antoine Marie Joseph
Dollo (FR-BE) proposed that evolution never repeats itself, i.e., it is
irreversible. This became known as Dollo’s
law. Darwin's natural selection does not necessarily prescribe progress or
regression, does not imply a direction of evolution in time, it only states an
environmental constraint. Indirectly, Dollo's law does: it prescribes a trend
towards more and more complex, and more and more ordered, living structures.
Dollo's law expresses the visible fact that reproduction, ontogeny and
phylogeny are biological organizations whose behavior is irreversible: both
during growth and during evolution, entropy of biological information
constantly increases. We evolved from bacteria to humans; we grew from children
to adults (448-451).
Rachel Collin (US), Roberto Cipriani (VE), Michael F. Whiting
(US), Sven Bradler (DE), and Taylor Maxwell (US) presented evidence that there
may be exceptions to Dollo’s law (331; 1775).
The Index Kewensis was
founded. It is a publication that aims to register all botanical names for seed
plants at the rank of species and genera. It later came to include names of
taxonomic families and ranks below that of species. The Index is maintained by
the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in London, England.
1894
"The restricted
action of the enzymes on glucosides could be explained by the
assumption that only in the case of similar geometrical structure
can the molecules approach each other sufficiently closely to
initiate a chemical action. To use a metaphor, I would like
to say that enzyme and glucoside have to fit together like lock
and key in order to exert a chemical effect on each other."
Hermann Emil Fischer (577)
"The students of adaptation forget that even on the strictest
application of the theory of selection
it is unnecessary to suppose that every part of an animal has, and everything
which it does, is useful and for its good. We, animals, live not only by virtue
of, but in spite of what we are." William Bateson (110)
Arvid Gustaf Högbom (SE) suggested an internal source for our
atmosphere because of gradual, episodic, or rapid volcanic outgassing and
weathering (816).
Steffen L. Thomsen (DE), Claude J. Allègre (FR), Thomas Staudacher
(FR), and Philippe Sarda (FR) determined that early catastrophic outgassing
occurred on the young Earth (20; 1594). This would
have released significant amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
methane, water, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Georg Bredig (DE) described what he called an inner salt because it existed as a molecule containing both
positive and negative charges (233).
Friedrich Wilhelm Küster (DE), while working with methyl orange,
coined the name zwitterion for
molecules carrying opposite charges (948). Bredig
accepted this name and pointed out that amino acids also form zwitterions (234).
Karl Ludwig Winkelblech (DE) proposed that simple amino acids in
their state of neutrality are dipolar ions (1808).
Elliot Quincy Adams (US) suggested that amino acids are
zwitterions at their isoelectric pH (14).
Niels Janniksen Bjerrum (DK) used the strength constants of acids
and bases to study the dissociation of other compounds. He also demonstrated that amino acids in their isoelectric state
are not uncharged molecules but are zwitterionen
(dipolar ions) (Bjerrum 1923) (181).
Hans Hermann Weber (DE) was the first to show by direct
demonstration that isoelectric proteins are zwitterions truly bristling with
charges (+ and – in equal number) (1746; 1747).
Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald (LV-DE) postulated that enzymes acting
as catalysts speed up both directions of reversible reactions. He pointed out
that the theories of Josiah Willard Gibbs (US) made it necessary to assume that
catalysts hasten a reaction without altering the energy relationships of the
substances involved. To Ostwald catalysts could not alter the free energy
relationships. It cannot make a reactin go, that would not go without it—though
it can make a reaction go rapidly that in its absence would proceed with only
imperceptible speed (1230). Ostwald is
generally believed to be the first to understand the nature of catalytic reactions.
See, Ostwald 1874
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE) and Paul Lindner (DE) found that cane
sugar, alpha-methylglucoside, is hydrolyzed by invertin (alpha-glycosidase),
extracted from dried yeast, but not by emulsin,
whereas beta-methylglucoside is cleaved by emulsin
but not invertin. He concluded, "…I
will say that the enzyme and the glucoside have to adapt with each other like a
key in a lock ('Schloss und Schlüssel') to carry out a chemical action one on
the other…. The finding that the activity of enzymes is limited by molecular
geometry to so marked a degree should be of some use for physiological
research." This is Fischer’s famous lock-and-key hypothesis explaining
enzyme specificity (577; 584).
Jokichi Takamine (JP-US) isolated a starch-hydrolyzing diastase from rice (Oryza sativa). In 1894, Takamine applied for, and was granted, a
patent titled "Process of Making Diastatic Enzyme" the first patent
on a microbial enzyme in the United States. Takamine developed his diastase from koji, a fungus used
in the manufacture of soy sauce and miso. Its Latin name is Aspergillus
oryzae (1570). Note: Takamine became a wealthy business man who funded the gift of
the cherry trees from the Mayor of Tokyo to Washington, DC, where they still adorn
the Tidal Basin.
Olaf Hammarsten (SE) isolated beta-nucleoprotein from ox
pancreatic nucleoprotein (742).
Ivar
Christian Bang (SE) prepared guanylic acid from Hammarsten’s
beta-nucleoprotein, then elucidated its structure
as a compound of guanine, pentose, and phosphoric acid in equimolar
proportions (81).
August Gürber (DE) crystallized horse serum albumin (719).
Franz Nissl (DE) developed a staining procedure, which shows
Nissl's substance (extranuclear RNA) in the nerve cells. These Nissl’s granules or Nissl’s bodies are found in the cell bodies and dendrites of
neurons, but absent from axons. They are concerned with protein
synthesis and metabolism; their condition varies with physiological and
pathological conditions (1195; 1196).
Arsenite of copper was discovered to be an insecticide (1478).
Giulio Cesare Bizzozero (IT) noticed a link between mitosis and
regenerative capacity. He divided mitotic cells into three categories: 1)
labile cells which demonstrate mitosis throughout life, e.g., bone marrow, 2)
stable cells in which spontaneous mitotic activity is uncommon following birth,
e.g., connective tissue, and 3) permanent cells which are mitotic in adulthood
but do not regenerate, e.g., striated muscle (180).
Martin Heidenhain (DE) coined the term telophase as it applies to cell division (763).
Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch (DE) theorized that all cell nuclei of
an organism are equipotential but vary in their activity in accordance with the
differentiation of tissues (460).
Emil Friedrich August Walter Migula (DE) described bacteria as
belonging to two major divisions, the Eubacteria (true bacteria) and the
Thiobacteria (sulfur bacteria). The first group contained bacteria that were
nonnucleated and colorless; the second group contained nonnucleated cells that
had granules of sulfur or a bacterial pigment (1119).
Martinus Willem Beijerinck (NL) was the first to isolate a
bacterium capable of reducing sulfates, Spirillum
desulfuricans (Desulfovibrio desulfuricans) (138).
Shibasaburo Kitasato (JP) and Alexandre Émile Jean Yersin (CH)
independently discovered the plague bacillus, later named Yersinia pestis (907-909; 1841; 1842).
Joseph Denys (BE) and Jules Havet (BE) found that dogs’ serum is
less bactericidal than dogs’ whole blood. Working with Bacillus coli, Bacillus
subtilis, and Staphylococcus they
found that the leukocytes play a fundamental part, for when they are removed
the plasma is robbed of a considerable part of its bactericidal properties.
Microscopic examination of the blood showed all stages of phagocytosis. This
was the first demonstration that phagocytosis was enhanced by the presence of
immune serum (423). Quoting Joseph
Denys (BE) and Joseph Leclef (BE), "In vaccinated rabbit, leukocytes get
from sera their power to engulf and destroy Streptococcus pyogenes."
(424)
Angelo Ruffini (IT), using gold chloride as a stain, described
encapsulated nerve endings that respond to warmth. These later became known as Ruffini corpuscles (1399-1401).
William Bateson (GB) emphasized the importance of discontinuous
variations, foreshadowing the rediscovery of Mendel's work. In this work he
conjectured that all organisms are made from an orderly series of parts or
segments, and coined the term homeosis
for it (110; 111).
Edmund Faustyn Biernacki (PL) noted the increased sedimentation
rate of blood from ill individuals and realized that it was due to the presence
of fibrinogen (175).
Robert Sanno Fåhraeus (SE) furthered Biernacki's work. His initial
motivation to study the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) was as a pregnancy
test but his interest expanded to the study of the ESR in disease states (562-564).
Alf Vilhelm Albertsson Westergren (SE) refined the technique of
performing the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and reported its usefulness
in determining the prognosis of patients with tuberculosis (1771).
Frederick George Novy (US) isolated the bacterium he called Bacillus oedematis maligni during his
study of malignant edema in guinea
pigs (1204). It was
named Bacillus novyi by Walter Migula
in 1900. It now bears the name Clostridium
novyi and is one of the important causes of gas gangrene.
William Hallock Park (US) and Alfred L. Beebe (US) demonstrated
that there are well individuals who
are carriers of diphtheria (1262; 1263).
Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (DE) and Vasily Isayevich
Isayev; Vassilii Issaevicj Issaev (last name also spelled Issaeff) (RU) began
their classic researches which showed that the destruction of the cholera
vibrio takes place by a kind of dissolution which they called bacteriolysis. Cholera vibrios were
destroyed in vitro in the serum of
animals immunized against cholera, and the same effect took place in the
peritoneal cavity of the living animal. By an ingenious and simple technique,
they showed that in the normal peritoneal cavity vibrios multiply rapidly,
whereas in the immunized animal they disappear. They removed drops of
peritoneal fluid by means of capillary pipettes and found in the case of the
immune animal that cholera vibrios, which had been injected, were almost
instantly rendered motionless and swollen. They then changed into micrococcus
like bodies which became more and more difficult to see and ultimately, they
disappeared altogether. This process of lysis occupied about 20 minutes and was
apparently independent of any cellular intervention. They showed that the serum
also acts in vitro but its activity
is abolished by dilution or heat at 60°C. The solution or lysis of vibrios in
the peritoneal cavity of an immunized animal is spoken of as Pfeiffer’s phenomenon, and is, as they
showed, highly specific in that vibrios closely related to Vibrio cholerae are not destroyed by cholera serum. They also
observed that cholera immunity could be passively transmitted, for when
anti-cholera serum from an immunized guinea-pig was injected into the
peritoneum of a normal guinea-pig cholera vibrios subsequently introduced into
the latter underwent the characteristic bacteriolysis (849; 1294; 1295).
Jakob Eriksson (DE) was the first to describe physiological races
of fungal rusts (548).
Pierre-Augustin Dangeard (FR) discovered sexual reproduction in
the Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes (396-399).
Henry Horatio Dixon (IE) and John Joly (IE) proposed the cohesion
or tension-cohesion theory as an explanation for how water (sap) rises in a
tree (438-442).
Eugen Askenasy (DE) made a very similar proposal only one year
later (49). The most important common
feature to both sets of papers was the identification of the cell walls of
parenchyma cells, whether living or dead, as the sites where surface tensions
develop due to the transpiration of water. Both papers emphasized that a moist
cell wall is impermeable to air, so that even at negative pressures air cannot
be sucked into conducting elements.
Raymond Jacques Adrien Sabouraud (FR) made mycological and clinical
studies of fungi which attack the hair, in man and other animals—the so-called tineas, ringworms, favus, and so
on (1420-1422).
Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (DE) was able to prove that oxygen is
generated by chloroplasts by varying the points of illumination and recording
the distribution of bacteria near the chloroplasts (542).
Ramón y Cajal (ES) discovered a nerve-fiber bundle between the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland in the rat (1336).
George Oliver (GB) and Edward Albert Sharpey-Schäfer (GB) were the
first to extract a hormone from an endocrine organ when they showed that a
preparation from the adrenal medulla of sheep and calves increases blood
pressure (presser effect), accelerates the heartbeat, and depresses kidney
function (antidiuretic) (1214; 1215).
Ladislaus
Szymonowicz (PL) and Napoleon Cybulski (PL) independently performed experiments
quite similar to those of Oliver and Schäfer in 1894 (1566).
Note:
This famous "fight or flight" hormone of the medulla was later named adrenaline
then later epinephrine.
William
Osler (CA-GB) prepared an extract of the adrenal medulla which relieved one
patient with Addison's disease (1226).
Karl Pearson (GB) published the first in a long series of
contributions to the mathematical theory of evolution. Here he introduces
the method of moments and applies it to estimating a mixture of normal
distributions (1276).
Karl Pearson (GB) developed normal correlation and
regression and applied them to heredity (1277).
Karl Pearson (GB) introduced the chi-square
goodness of fit test (1278).
Walter Garstang (DE) theorized that primitive chordates were
sessile, filter-feeding marine organisms very similar to present day ascidians.
The tadpole ascidian larvae, with its basic organization of a vertebrate, which
had evolved within the group by progressive evolution and by neoteny became
sexually mature, ceased to metamorphose into a sessile, mature ascidian, and
became the ancestral vertebrate (651; 652).
Harris Hawthorne Wilder (US) discovered that certain salamanders
do not possess lungs (1784).
Conwy Lloyd Morgan (GB) established the basic principles in the
study of animal behavior including his famous canon that the actions of an
animal should be interpreted in terms of the simplest mental processes (1153).
Arthur König
(DE), Edward Nevill Willmer (GB), and W. David Wright (GB) provided
psychophysical evidence that the center of the human fovea is tritanopic (blind to blue) for very small objects (924; 1795).
W. David Wright (GB) found that blue-blindness is very rare in
man, not sex-linked, and affecting only about 1 in 2000 persons, about 40
percent are women (1831).
Léon Charles Albert Calmette (FR) prepared
horse anti-cobra anti-venom, which he used to protect chickens (268-270).
He later became the first to prepare commercial anti-venom for medical use.
Guido Banti (IT) described Banti’s
syndrome (splenic anemia attended with cirrhosis of the liver, hypertrophy
of the spleen, and ascites) (83; 84).
Pierre Paul Émile Roux (FR), Louis M. Martin (FR), and M. Auguste
Chaillou (FR) treated diphtheritic children with antiserum they produced in
horses (1384; 1385). No mention
of serum sickness accompanies these reports.
Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger (DK) investigated the effect of
serum treatment on diphtheria. It was
the first clinical trial in which random allocation was used and emphasized as
a pivotal methodological principle. This pioneering improvement in methodology,
combined with many patients and rigorous planning, conduct, and reporting,
makes this trial a milestone in the history of clinical trials (574).
Gustav Mann (GB-US) discovered a relationship between Nissl Granules or Bodies and nervous activity when he demonstrated that these bodies
disappear from the spinal anterior horn cells of dogs after excessive muscular
exercise and likewise they are diminished within pyramidal cells in the
occipital cortex after exposure of the eye to light. He concluded that the
chromatic material within these bodies builds up during rest and diminishes
during function (1059).
Hans Held (DE) determined that the intraneuronal Nissl Granules or Bodies are composed of nucleoalbumin (nucleoprotein). This
represents the first-time nucleoprotein was located within the cytoplasm (764).
Jean Louis Brachet (FR) proved that Nissl bodies contain ribonucleic acid (227).
Otto Busse (DE) and Abraham Buschke (DE) first described this
yeast as a human pathogen when they isolated a "Saccharomyces-like"
organism from a bone infection in a young woman with chronic tibial
subperiosteal inflammation, thought to be a “softened” sarcoma (264-266). Note:
Called Busse-Buschke disease
Jean-Paul Vuillemin (FR) renamed the organism Cryptococcus
neoformans because it did not produce ascospores, which is a defining
characteristic of the genus Saccharomyces (1715). Note: Disease now called Cryptococcosis
Note: The
genomes of C. neoformans and C. gattii diverged over 34 million
years ago, yielding species with marked ecological and pathological differences.
David Paul von Hansemann (DE) was the first to describe a case of meningitis caused by the fungus Torula histolytica. Later it was
realized that the etiological agent was the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans (1690).
Carl Ludwig Schleich (DE) suggested that neuroglia moderate
neuronal activity through an inhibitory action (436).
Edward Treacher Collins (GB) was the first to report what later
became known as von Hippel-Lindau disease (332).
Arvid Lindau (SE) described retinal hemangioblastoma and
noted that very similar tumors occurred in other organs such as the brain and
kidney (995). Note: along with retinal
angiomas, hemangioblastomas also occur in endolymphatic sac
tumors, renal cell carcinoma, pheochromocytomas, pancreatic cysts, and neuroendocrine
tumors
Farida Latif (GB), Kalman Tory (GB), James Gnarra (GB), Mingnan
Yao (GB), Fuh-Mei Duh (GB), Mary Lou Orcutt (GB), Thomas Stackhouse (GB), Igor
Kuzmin (GB), William S. Modi (GB), Laura Geil (GB), and A.C. Chinault (GB) identified
the von Hippel-Lindau disease tumor suppressor gene (966).
Gustav Born (DE) originated heteroplastic
transplantation by joining together parts of embryos belonging to different
species such as frog and toad, i.e., chimeras. He obtained individuals, which
continued to develop (204; 205). Hans
Winkler (DE) was the first to produce plant chimeras by grafting tomato and
nightshade (1809).
Max Rubner (DE) painstakingly tested the energy consumption of
dogs using large calorimeters. He measured the nitrogen content of urine and
feces, and carefully estimated the quantity of the various foodstuffs in the
diet he fed his subjects. He found that the heat produced by the animal equaled
the heats of combustion of the fats, carbohydrates, and protein minus that of
the urinary matter. He concluded, that no one foodstuff supplied all the
energy. The body made use of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins with equal
readiness. The nitrogen portion of the proteins was split away before it was
used as a fuel, he maintained, and in this he was correct (1396).
Archibald Edward Garrod (GB) was apparently the first to document
congenital heart disease as a component of Down syndrome (646).
Siegmund Exner (AT) first formulated the concept of a neural
network, a concept later used in computer design
(558).
Toma Ionescu; Thomas Jonnesco (HU) gave the original description
of rectal fascia (rectum sheath) (845).
Simplacio Del Vecchio (IT), in 1894, exhibited a dog with a
sutured cardiac wound before the 11th International Medical Congress in Rome.
Del Vecchio described to the Congress how the suturing is possible and proved
that the heart is more resilient than previously believed (421).
Edmond Delorme (FR) performed the first decortication
(removal of pleura) of the lung for treatment of chronic empyema (422).
Jules Emile Péan (FR) is widely
credited with having performed the first total shoulder replacement on March
11, 1893 (1274).
Mathieu
Jaboulay (FR) is credited with the first interilio-abdominal amputation
(amputation of a lower limb through the sacroiliac joint). It is also called a
hemipelvectomy (855).
Otto Ludwig Binswanger (CH) described a new clinical and
neuropathological picture that he termed "encephalitis subcorticalis chronica progressiva" (178). It is this disease that is named
after him, Binswanger’s disease. It
is also known as ischemic periventricular
leukoencephalopathy and subcortical
dementia. This dementia is characterized by damage to small penetrating
blood vessels in the subcortical regions of the brain. These cerebrovascular
lesions are deep in the white matter of the brain.
Eugéne Devic (FR) and Fernand Gault (FR) described a rare nervous
condition that affected the spinal cord and optic nerves that resembled
multiple sclerosis. Today this disorder is referred to as Devic's disease or neuromyelitis optica (426; 654).
Jules Emile Péan (FR) is believed to
have performed the first surgery to correct diverticula of the bladder (1274).
In 1894,
five men and two women with Hansen's
disease, then called leprosy, were brought by barge to an abandoned sugar
plantation, known only as Indian Camp, on a bend of the Mississippi River
between Baton Rouge and New Orleans. Named the Gillis W. Long Hansen's Disease
Center, it is now known as the National Hansen's Disease Programs.
William Crawford Williamson (GB) and Dunkinfield Henry Scott (GB)
sent three memoirs to the Royal Society of London, which included a description
of the evolutionary links between ferns and cycads. This led to the development
of phylogenetic theories of plants (1790-1792).
The journal Wilhelm
Roux' Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen was founded.
This was the first journal of experimental embryology.
c. 1895
Josef Albert Amann (DE) introduced his original abdominal seam,
the transperitoneal method of extirpation of carcinoma of the uterus. He also had
suggestions for limiting the risk of infections, during surgery of the uterus. Ref
1895
"Every great operation in
surgery has a period of evolution of varying duration.
Each marked advance in medicine and surgery is preceded by attempts which led
to the elucidation of old ideas or the conception of new ones. All great discoveries are overshadowed by the labors of a host of
earnest and progressive workers which ultimately crown the efforts of a favored
few. Nearly all of the improvements in medicine and surgery
which have characterized the present progressive age are only a repetition of the work of our professional ancestors. Many a so-called modern operation is only a recent and not always an improved edition of the operative technique as devised and described by one of the old masters." N. Senn (US) (1475).
John William Strutt (GB) and William Ramsay (GB) collaborated to
discover argon, the first of the “inert” or Noble gases (1342). Ramsay
went on to discover helium, neon, krypton, and xenon.
Sven G. Hedin (SE) and Albrecht Karl Ludwig Martin Leonard Kossel
(DE), working independently, isolated the amino acid histidine. Kossel isolated
it from sturgeon sperm and called it histidin
from the Greek word meaning tissue. Hedin isolated it from animal horn (762; 931).
Charles Frederick Cross (GB), Edward John Bevan (GB), and Clayton
Beadle (GB) were the first to purify cellulose from wood (365).
Henry Edward Schunck (DE) and Leon Paul Theodor Marchlewski (DE)
prepared pure phylloporphyrin from chlorophyll and later discovered how similar
its absorption spectrum is to that of hematoporphyrin (1459; 1460).
Gabriel Émile Bertrand (FR) isolated the enzyme laccase from latex (163). Note: This was the first isolated enzyme of the oxidation-reduction
type. Up to this point all isolated enzymes had been of the hydrolytic type.
Gabriel Émile Bertrand (FR) coined the term oxidases to describe several plant enzymes, which catalyzed
oxidation reactions. He also discovered that some oxidases are likely to require metals, which he named coferments or coenzymes, and were therefore catalytic metalloproteins (164).
Charles Ernest Overton (GB) analyzed how substances pass into
cells from outside through the boundary layer. He discovered that non-polar
solutes pass though more easily than polar solutes and concluded that the
boundary layer has the dissolving qualities of fatty oil. He guessed that it
must contain lipids calling the layers surrounding cells “lipoids” made from
lipids and cholesterol. He reported
active transport of solutes across a cell membrane against a concentration
gradient (1240-1242).
Tamás Marschalkó; Thomas von Marschalko (HU) was the first to describe the characteristics of plasma cells, including blocked
chromatin, eccentric position of the nucleus, aperinuclear pale area (hof) and
a spherical or irregular cytoplasm (1697).
Paul Gerson Unna (DE) used the term plasma cell but it is not known precisely what type of cell he was
viewing (1636).
Paul Gerson Unna (DE) defined the plasma cell as a protoplasm poor
cell, which is frequently an important component of the infiltration of the
skin in several diseases (1638).
Frank Spiller Locke (GB) recognized that calcium ions are
necessary for effective neuromuscular transmission (1004).
Sergei Nikolaevich Winogradsky (RU) discovered chemoautotrophic
bacteria that oxidize ammonia to nitrite (Nitrosococcus), and other
chemoautotrophs, which oxidize nitrite to nitrate (Nitrobacter). These
organisms contain no chlorophyll, yet they could assimilate carbon dioxide and
make organic material in the dark. This work provided a firm foundation for his
concept of the chemoautotrophic life style (1814).
Sergei Nikolaevich Winogradsky (RU) isolated a free-living
anaerobic nitrogen fixing bacterium and named it Clostridium pasteurianum (1814). Martinus Willum Beijerinck (NL) later isolated and identified it as Azotobacter chroococcum (142).
Frederick Frost Blackman (GB) proved that most of the gaseous
exchange between the leaves of a plant and the surrounding atmosphere takes
place through the stomata (184).
I[gnatij] A[dolfovié] Notkin (DE) showed that the physiologically
active principle of the thyroid gland resided in a protein substance, which he
called thyreoproteid (1203).
Adolf Magnus-Levy (DE-US) was the first to apply respiratory quotient
studies to people with disease. He discovered that people with a hyperthyroid
condition exhibit an elevation in metabolic rate, whereas those with myxedema
and underfunctioning thyroids exhibited a lowered metabolic rate. This
represents the origin of the use of metabolic rates in medical diagnosis (1053). This work
helped bring about the realization that the thyroid and its secretion have an
active function unrelated to detoxifying the blood but indispensable to health.
See, George Redmayne Murray, 1891.
George Henry Falconer Nuttall (US-GB) and Hans Thierfelder (DE) demonstrated
the importance of intestinal bacteria in digestion (1208).
Waldemar Mordecai Wolff Haffkine (RU-CH-FR) developed a vaccine
for cholera by giving a subcutaneous injection of culture—attenuated by growth
at an elevated temperature—followed five days later by a subcutaneous injection
of virulent culture (726).
Hans Klebahn (DE) proposed that Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
contain granules (vacuoles) filled with gas. He suggested that the gas is
directly concerned with their flotation (910).
William Ernest Castle (US) proved that in Ciona intestinalis, a hermaphrodite ascidian, self-fertilization is
prevented not, as had been supposed, by ripening of eggs and sperm at different
times but by a different means which Castle revealed for the first time in an
animal. This was that, in general, sperm and eggs produced by the same
individual are unable to unite in fertilization. The failure of sperm, in
Ciona, to penetrate eggs of the same individual was comparable, in Castle's
view, to the self-sterility (later called incompatibility), which had been
found in certain flowering plants (294).
Wilhelm August Oskar Hertwig (DE) centrifuged frog eggs and
demonstrated the effect of yolk distribution on cleavage (788).
Erwin Frink Smith (US) described wilt in cucurbits, defined the
disease, listed host plants, described geographical distribution and signs of
the disease, and proved the etiological role of a specific bacterium. An
abridgement of one of his experiments follows:
Inoculations of July 16, 1896
The plants were in a hothouse and the bacteria used were from…an
eight-day old culture…. Well-developed, young, healthy, and rapidly growing
cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus
variety White Wonder), were inoculated…. Many delicate pricks (40 to 70) were
made in the apical part of one leaf-blade of each plant, covering an area of
not more than one sq. cm. The pricks themselves did the plant no injury. The
platinum loop and the steel needle used in the operation were flamed and cooled
each time before using. A big loop of the fluid, containing many thousands of
the bacteria (some of which were motile, as determined by examination under the
microscope) was put on the clean surface of the leaf, spread a little, and then
rapidly pricked in, taking special care to make the needle holes as small as
possible…. The plants were examined every day for the first 8 days and
frequently after that. Twenty-four plants were inoculated.
(Plant 355) This plant was 18 inches and very thrifty. The
inoculation was made on the sixth leaf 9 inches away from the stem. The pricked
leaf-blade was 5 inches broad. Up to the morning of July 21, there was no trace
of disease but at 3 PM of the same day about 0.5 sq. cm. on one side of the
pricks was wilted…. By noon of the seventh day, the wilt covered about 10 sq.
cm., and reached halfway down the blade. The leaf was now cut off close to the
stem with a hot knife. Four days later the vine was normal, apparently except
for a droop of the first two blades below and a fainter one of the first two
above the node, which had borne the pricked leaf. I filled the pot several
times with water, but an hour later the absorption of the water had not relieved
the droop of the foliage. The next day in the afternoon, the first two leaves
below were cut away. They had not recovered their turgor. Three days later…the
blades of the next four showed a wilt. The eighteenth day the blades of the
second and fourth leaves up were shriveled but the petioles were turgid. The
fourth leaf was on the same side as the second. The blade of the third leaf,
which was on the opposite side, was flabby but had not yet shriveled. The
blades of the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth leaves were drooping. The others
were turgid. The twenty-third day after inoculation all the leaves were
shriveled….
Similar results were obtained with the twenty-four other plants
inoculated, and Smith continued:
Every one of the twenty-four plants contracted the disease, and in
each case, it appeared in the pricked area. Nineteen of the plants subsequently
developed constitutional signs and died of the disease. No general signs
appeared in the other five plants, i.e., the disease was stopped by the removal
of the affected leaf…. In eighteen cases the amputation of the affected leaf
did not check the spread of the disease.…The bacteria…pass down through the
vessels of the leaf at the rate of about 0.75 inch to 2 inches (2 to 5 cm.) a
day….
Between August 5 and 8 numerous freshly wilting leaves were cut
from these plants and fixed in strong alcohol to determine whether the bacteria
are actually in the vessels of the leaf at the time the secondary wilt appears
or whether this wilt is due simply to the plugging of the vessels of the stem….
Thin microtome sections were made from the basal part of the petiole of 66
leaves…staining in carbol fuchsin. Bacteria cannot be demonstrated in everyone,
but they occur in 61 of them; no fungi are present, neither are there any insect-injuries.
In most cases the bacteria are confined strictly to the spiral vessels of the
petioles, and they do not occur in all of these, nor in all of the bundles.
They are not present in the phloem, the cortical parenchyma or the tissues
between the bundles. Summarized, the amount of bacterial infection in the basal
part of the petioles is as follows: (1) In a few petioles nearly every bundle
is occupied, and bacteria occur in many vessels…(2) in 5 no bacteria detected;
(3) in by far the greatest number the bacteria are confined to a few vessels of
a few bundles….
After a description of the Morbid
Anatomy, Smith proceeded to The
Parasite, Bacillus tracheiphilus.
His summary reveals the thorough nature of his investigation:
Résumé of Salient Characters
Positive
A bacillus in the vascular bundles of cucurbits causing a
wilt-disease; short rods (single, paired, in fours end to end, or in small
clumps); motile, peritrichate; capsules; pseudozoogloeae; involution-forms;
stains readily; smooth; white; viscid; glistening; slow grower on media;
surface colonies small, round discrete; no growth at 37°C. or at 6°C. (16
days); aerobic; facultative anaerobic (with grape-sugar or fruit-sugar); from
these sugars a non-volatile acid, soluble in ether; grows only in open end of
F-tube with dextrine or glycerine, acid from glycerine; slime on steamed potato
(Solanum tuberosum) is same color as
the normal substratum; usually it grays potato after a time; clouds
peptone-bouillon and Dunham’s solution thinly; growth retarded in acid juice of
cucumber fruits; also retarded or inhibited by juice of many other vegetables,
e.g., table beet, sugar-beet, turni, etc.; grows on many media at 25°C., carrot
(Daucus carotus), coconut (Cocos nucifera), Fermi, Uschinsky, etc.;
asparagin as carbon food (?); thermal death point 53°C.; optimum for growth
25°C. to 30°C.; maximum, 34°C. to 35°C. (?); minimum (?) 8°C.or below; easily
killed by dry air, sunlight, or freezing (50 per cent or more); ammonia
production (moderate; feeble production of hydrogen sulfide; in litmus-milk
persistent growth without reduction or distinct change in color of litmus;
short-lived on many media; killed readily by acids, but lives long in
cane-sugar-bouillon with carbonate of lime; grows on some media in hydrogen and
carbon dioxide; dissolves middle lamella (cucumber-parenchyma); distributed by
insects, especially by Diabrotica vittata.
Mealy or dendritic surface growths; negative grams stain;
endospores; chains; filaments; growth not yellowish, piled up or wrinkled;
pellicle on bouillon; liquefaction (gelatin, blood serum, egg-albumin, etc.);
lactose and pure maltose in closed end fermentation-tube lab ferment; acid (in
milk); gas (all media); pigment (except gray stain on potato); indol (?);
nitrite from nitrates; starch-splitting; cellulose-dissolving (except possibly
in host); asparagin as nitrogen food; ammonium salts as nitrogen food; steamed
turnip, and cauliflower; Cohn’s solution; acid bouillon (+33); acid gelatin;
nearly odorless; not a soft rot; not infectious to tomato, potato (Solanum tuberosum), etc. On steamed
potato liable to be confounded with a non-infectious coccus (follower) which
reddens litmus milk.
Any organism which reddens or blues litmus-milk decidedly, reduces
the litmus, throws down the casein, or clears litmus-free milk without
precipitation may be set down at once as something else.
It was during his study of the wilt of cucurbits that Smith
established the methods for the critical and faultless study of bacterial plant
diseases. He investigated a number of other diseases of this type, such as the
brown rot of Solanaceae, the black rot of cucifers, the yellow disease of
hyacinths, bean blight, mulberry blight, the black spot and canker of peach and
plum, the angular leaf spot of cotton, the angular leaf spot of cucumber, the
bacterial canker of tomato, the olive tubercle, and others (1511).
Louis Hermann Pammel (US) discovered and described the
microorganism causing black rot of cabbage. He named it Bacillus campestris, later changed to Xanthomonas campestris (1252).
K. Takata (JP) presented evidence that insects can be vectors of
plant virus disease—dwarf disease of rice
(Oryza sativa) (1573).
Hatsuzo Hashimoto (JP), a rice grower, was the first to prove
experimentally the role of insect as plant disease vector. He observed and
discussed but did not publish his findings on the leafhopper as vector for rice
stunt virus (15).
Alexander Marmorek (AT-FR) discovered that fluid cultures of
streptococci lyse erythrocytes (1069).
J. Jackson Lister (GB) established the alternation of asexual and
sexual generations in a recognized species of protozoa, Polystomella crispa a foraminiferan (999).
David Bruce (GB) and Mary Elizabeth Steele Bruce (GB) while
investigating an outbreak of nagana,
a disease like surra, in cattle in
Zululand, were looking for a bacterial cause and found trypanosomes in the
blood of diseased cattle; they demonstrated experimentally that these caused nagana in cattle and horses and infected
dogs. They also observed that infected cattle had spent some time in the
fly-infested "tsetse belt" and that the disease was like that in
humans called negro lethargy and fly disease of hunters (248-251). The
causative agent was later named Trypanosoma
brucei in their honor. The Bruces were the first to prove that an insect can
carry a protozoan of a pathological kind.
Gustave Nepveu (FR), in 1891, was the first to observe
trypanosomes in human blood (1177).
Joseph Everett Dutton (GB) and Robert Michael Forde (GB)
identified the trypanosome that causes Gambian
or chronic sleeping sickness in humans as Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (487; 488; 603; 604).
Aldo Castellani (Count of Chisiamaio) (IT) discovered Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in the
cerebrospinal fluid of patients suffering from sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis).
He suggested that these trypanosomes cause the disease (293).
Frederick George Novy (US) and Ward J. MacNeal (US) successfully
established in vitro cultures of Trypanosoma brucei (1205).
Friedrich K. Kleine (DE) demonstrated the essential role of the
tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis) in the
life cycle of trypanosomes (912).
John William Watson Stephens (GB) and Harold Benjamin Fantham (GB)
described Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the cause of Rhodesian or acute sleeping sickness (1540).
Ronald Ross (GB) and David Thompson (GB) described the persistence
of trypanosomes in the blood and the existence of successive waves of
parasitemia in patients with African
sleeping sickness (1378).
Walter Abraham Jacobs (US), Michael Heidelberger (US), Wade H.
Brown (US), and Louise Pearce (US) synthesized the first drug found to be
effective in the treatment of African
sleeping sickness (the sodium salt of N-phenyl-glycineamide-p-arsonic acid) (858; 1275).
Matthew P. Cunningham (GB), Keith Vickerman (GB) and Antony G.
Luckins (GB) determined how the parasite, Trypanosoma
brucei, evades the immune response by
what is called antigenic variation (376; 1655; 1656).
James E. Taylor (GB) and Gloria Rudenko (GB) were astonished to
find in the T. brucei genome sequence that <7% of the sequenced variant
surface glycoproteins (VSGs) seem to have fully functional coding regions. This
preponderance of pseudogenes in the VSG gene repertoire will necessitate a
rethink of how antigenic variation in African trypanosomes operates (1579).
Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (BE) showed anti-cholera serum
heated to 55°C could be mixed with unheated normal serum and produce
bacteriolysis of Vibrio cholera, however,
if the normal serum was also heated the bacteriolysis failed to occur. He
concluded that two substances or factors must be concerned in the lytic action.
One of these substances is present both in normal and fresh immune serum and is
thermolabile; the other is peculiar to the immune serum and is thermostable (197-199).
Wilhelm His (CH) was the first to accurately describe the
hypothalamus, which he named (800).
Henry Hallett Dale (GB) discovered the oxytocic or
uterine-contracting effect of the posterior pituitary extract (392; 393). Note:
The hormone responsible was named oxytocin.
Isaac Ott (US) and John C. Scott (US) were the
first investigators to demonstrate that the corpus
luteum is a rich source of oxytocin.
These researchers reported that an aqueous extract of the corpus luteum when injected into a goat, stimulated immediate milk
flow
(1233).
Alfred Erich Frank (DE) showed that the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland produces vasopressin, an antidiuretic hormone, which
controls diabetes insipidus (614).
Reinhard von den Velden (DE), A. Farini (IT), B. Ceccaroni (IT) Walter
Frey (DE), K. Kumpiess (DE), Artur von Konschegg (DE), and Ernest Joseph
Schuster (DE) discovered the antidiuretic effect of posterior lobe pituitary
gland extract (vasopressin). Each had patients with disease or damage to
the pituitary accompanied by polyuria and, interpreting this to be due to the
gland’s impaired ; function, they easily controlled the excessive water loss by
administration of extracts of the posterior lobe
(568; 627; 1673; 1696).
Hendrik Zwaardemaker (NL) originated the concept of odor
conjugates. He discovered that certain odors can be prevented from detection by
smell senses when mixed with various essential oils. These combinations of
odors are referred to as Zwaardemaker Pairs, (or Z-pairs) (1859).
Jean-Martin Charcot (FR) and Jean Albert Pitres (FR) conclusively
proved the existence of cortical motor centers in man (310).
Theobald Smith (US) reported that guinea pigs died of a peculiar
hemorrhagic disease when fed on a cereal diet without succulent vegetables (1514). Note: It was later
learned that this hemorrhagic condition is essentially scurvy.
Harvey Williams Cushing (US) and Ernest Amory Codman (US) made
a wager to see who could develop better control over the administration of
surgical anesthesia and thereby limit the distress—and even accidental death—of
patients during operations. The result was the ether
chart, on which were recorded continuously the surgery patient’s pulse,
respiration, temperature, and later blood pressure, when a pneumatic device for
registering it became available. This innovation led to a considerable
reduction in mortality rate from anesthesia and is one of the major
contributions of American medicine to surgery. These charts are
the earliest examples of meticulous documentation of a patient’s vital signs (388).
Harvey Williams Cushing (US) demonstrated the value of observing
blood pressure during surgery and predicted that the taking of a patient’s
blood pressure would become routine medical practice (387).
William MacEwen (GB), in 1895, performed the first pneumonectomy
for tuberculosis in a patient who survived (1038).
Vincenz Czerny (CZ-DE) performed the first autogenous breast
reconstruction when he replaced breast tissue with a non-cancerous lumbar lipoma
(391; 680).
Robert Tuttle Morris (US), who performed the first human ovarian
grafting in 1895, published the same year a presentation of his idea of gland
grafting, description of technique, and a report upon cases. In May 1906, in
the New York Medical Record, he published a report of the birth of a living
child after heteroplastic ovarian grafting (1159; 1160; 1504).
Josef von Halban (AT) used ovarian transplants in baboons to
restore their periods. He concluded, correctly, that in internal secretion the
production and presence of hormones is not sufficient; the target organ must
also be able to react and respond to the stimulus.
Josef von Halban (AT) reported his experiments with ovarian
transplants in castrate newborn guinea pigs, with the result that there was
normal development of the uterus and the salpinges. He concluded that the host
of the transplant developed a new blood supply that transported a substance or
substances from the transplant to the uterus and the other genital organs and
furthermore this substance is necessary to maintain the development of the
sexual organs and the mammary glands (1687).
Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming (DK) wrote Plantesamfund - Grundtræk af den økologiske
Plantegeografi [Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study
of Plant Communities], one of the first books dealing with plant ecology.
In it we find, "Oecological plant geography seeks: (1) to find out which
species are commonly associated together in similar habitats; (2) to sketch the
physiognomy of the vegetation and the landscape; (3) to answer the questions:
why do species congregate to form definite communities, and why do these have a
characteristic physiognomy; and (4) to consider the economy of plants and their
growth-form." (1736)
Ismar Isidor Boas (DE) founded Archiv
für Verdauungs-Krankheiten, the first journal devoted to the subject of
gastroenterology.
1896
"Heredity provides for the modification of its own machinery"
was James Mark Baldwin’s (US) way of saying that the capacity to respond to
environmental conditions is itself hereditary, i.e., the evolutionary effect (78).
"Chemistry has taken possession of medicine and will not let
go." Pierre Émile Duclaux (474)
Antoine Henri Becquerel (FR) "discovered radioactivity."
He planned to place a silver coin between uranium salts and a photographic
plate wrapped in thick black paper, exposing the entire package to the sun. To
his amazement, he discovered the coin’s shadow on the plate even though it had
not been exposed to light. He concluded that this new radiation was an atomic
property of uranium (129-131). During his
studies of uranium salts found in pitchblende he concluded that it was more
radioactive than could be accounted for by its uranium content and therefore
might contain another more powerfully radioactive substance. He encouraged
Pierre and Marie Curie to research the matter. See, Claude-Félix-Abel Niepce de
Saint-Victor, 1857.
Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald (DE) made the first electrometric
measurement of hydrogen ion concentration by the potential on a platinum
electrode in solutions saturated with hydrogen gas (1231). He discovered that this
potential is a logarithmic function of the strength of the acid.
Max Cremer (DE) discovered an electrical potential proportional to
the acid concentration difference across thin glass membranes (358).
Fritz Habër (DE) and Zygamunt Klemensiewicz (PO-GB-PO), in 1909,
constructed and studied glass H+ electrodes (721).
Karl Albert Hasselbalch (DK) and Christen Lundsgaard (DK) produced
a modified Ostwald platinum electrode with which they measured blood pH at body
temperature (750).
Heinrich Dannneel () discovered the reaction of oxygen with a
negatively charged metal (cathode), the basis of oxygen polarography, later
developed by Jaroslav Heyrovsky (CZ) (792).
Phyllis Tookey Kerridge (GB) constructed the first blood glass pH
electrode (899).
Poul Bjørndahl Astrup (DK) designed an apparatus with which it was
possible to determine the acid-base imbalance in a patient (51).
Richard W. Stow (US), Richard F. Baer (US), and Barbara F. Randall
(US) conceived of an electrode for measuring PCO2 (1558).
Leland C. Clark, Jr. (US) developed and perfected a PO2 electrode (322).
Svante Arrhenius (SE) in developing a theory to explain the ice
ages was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate
estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
will increase Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect (44).
Sodium fluoride was first used as an insecticide. Crude petroleum
emulsions were tested as insecticides. The value of early-season control of
boll weevil was discovered; arsenicals were recommended for this purpose (1478).
Charles James Martin (GB) designed and
constructed a high-pressure gelatin membrane ultrafilter for fractionation of
snake venom.
This represents the first application of ultrafiltration (1070).
Scipione Riva-Rocci (IT) introduced the mercury sphygmomanometer
in its modern form (for determining arterial blood pressure) (148; 1316; 1366; 1403).
Marceli Nencki; Marcellus von Nencki (PL) established that
porphyrins are made up of pyrrole nuclei. He proposed that the similar chemical
properties of hemin and chlorophyll denotes a common origin of plant and animal
life and that comparison of similar compounds of flora and fauna provides
insight into chemical and organismal evolution (1175).
Edmund Beecher Wilson (US) in his great book, The Cell in Development and Inheritance, established a synthesis of
cytology, ontogenetics, and genetics. He presented compelling evidence that the
cell nucleus contains the physical basis of inheritance; and that chromatin,
its essential constituent, is the idioplasm postulated in Nägeli's theory.
First, the persistent accuracy with which the chromosomes replicate and are
distributed, in contrast with the often-random division of the cytoplasm by
region, indicates the importance of ensuring that each daughter cell receives a
full complement of chromosomes. Second, the work of Boveri in particular (1887)
had suggested that chromosomes maintain their individuality and continuity from
one generation to the next. Third, abundant cytological evidence showed that
while sperm and egg had enormously different cytoplasmic components (the sperm
has virtually no cytoplasm) they seemed, overall, to affect the heredity of the
offspring equally. Thus, it would appear, Wilson pointed out, that the
cytoplasm has relatively little hereditary function. Fourth, numerous
experiments by others indicated that enucleated cells do not function normally.
Whatever the exact function of the nucleus, it is necessary to the normal
maintenance of cell activity. Wilson maintained that the nucleus is the seat of
constructive (anabolic), and the cytoplasm of destructive (catabolic),
processes (see Claude Bernard,
1878-1879) (1801).
Franz Julius Keibel (PL-DE) described the complex formation of the
urogenital system. This was the first in-depth treatise of the formation of a
body system (891). Keibel also edited a landmark
series of 16 volumes on vertebrate embryos that defined for the first time
standard divisions of human development by utilizing plates of normal embryos
at multiple ages and included tables of their measurements. The volumes were a
major rebuttal to Haeckel’s proposal that ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny (892).
Hans Lohmann (DE) was the first to promote the idea that natural
waters contain more small life form than previously suspected. Working on the
phytoplankton from the coast of Sicily, he was the first to use the technique
of pumping sea water through filter paper and in this way, he was able to
collect and identify many minute species for which he later suggested the name
‘ Nannoplankton’(nanoplankton) (1020-1022). He is
commemorated by the genus Lohmannella,
Trouessart, 1901.
Sallie W. Chisholm (US), Robert J.
Olson (US), Erik R. Zettler (US), Ralf Goericke (US), John B. Waterbury (US),
and Nicholas A. Welschmeyer (US) discovered that the bacteria-sized
cyanobacterium, Prochlorococcus sp., is abundant in the open ocean, with
counts of up to 20,000 cells per drop of seawater (316).
Sakugaro Hirase (JP) and Seiichiro Ikeno (JP) were
the first to prove the existence of motile spermatozoids in gymnosperms (795; 796; 843; 844).
Herbert John Webber (US) reported that one of the higher plants, Zamia, produces swimming sperm (1740-1745).
Ernest Henry Starling (GB) was the first to point out that
capillary blood pressure tends to force materials from the circulating blood
into surrounding tissues (transudation) and serum proteins exert an osmotic
pressure, which tends to force the absorption of materials from the surrounding
tissues; the interplay of these forces leads to transudation at times and
absorption at others. They show that the pre- and post-capillary resistances
can be estimated in isolated perfused hindlimbs (1530).
Albert A. Epstein (US) applied Starling's concept to explain the
edema of patients with the nephrotic syndrome. He found extremely low albumin-
and almost normal globulin-levels in sera from patients with chronic
parenchymatous nephritis. In contradistinction to the findings in patients with
cardiac disease, almost no protein, and particularly no albumin, was detected
in serous effusions and edema fluid of patients with nephrotic syndrome (547).
John Richard Pappenheimer (US) and Armando Soto-Rivera (VE)
confirmed Starling’s findings (1259).
John Richard Pappenheimer (US), Eugene M. Renkin (US), and Luis M.
Borrero (CO) were the first to successfully attempt to relate physiological
measurements of permeability to the structure of microvascular walls. The first
to offer a comprehensive theoretical analysis of diffusion and convection of
solutes through channels of molecular dimensions and the first to provide
quantitative evidence supporting the hypothesis that permeability to
hydrophilic solutes is restricted to the intercellular regions (1258).
Theobald Smith (US) published papers on differences in virulence
in tubercle bacilli from several sources. The tubercle bacilli which he
isolated from the udder or other affected organs of tuberculous cattle and
cultivated on artificial media were more pathogenic for rabbits, as well as for
cattle, than were organisms isolated from human sputum or affected human lungs
at postmortem. Later, the designation human and bovine as applied to different
strains of the tuberculosis bacillus became widely accepted (1515; 1516).
Johann Petruschky (DE) appears to be one of the first to have
isolated Alcaligenes faecalis (Bacterium faecalis alcaligenes) (1286). He
originated litmus milk as a bacterial culture medium. Ref
Emile M. P. van Ermengem (BE) isolated and named Clostridium botulinum, the etiological
agent of botulism (L. botulus, sausage). He called it Bacillus botulinas. The source was
pickled ham, which had made many people ill (1642; 1643).
P. Tessmer Snipe (US) and Hermann Sommer (US) purified botulinus
toxin (1521). Note: See Carl Lamana, 1946.
Arnold Stanley
Vincent Burgen (GB), Frank Dickens (GB), and Leonard J. Zatman (GB) discovered
that botulinum toxin blocks neuromuscular transmission (263).
Alan B. Scott
(US) and Edward J. Schantz (US) were the first to work on a standardized
botulinum toxin preparation for therapeutic purposes (457; 1484).
Alan B. Scott
(US) used botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) in monkey experiments. In 1980, he
officially used BTX-A for the first time in humans to treat strabismus (crossed
eyes), a condition in which the eyes are not properly aligned with each other,
and uncontrollable blinking (blepharospasm) (1439; 1464; 1465).
Victor Morax (CH-FR) and Karl Theodor Paul Polykarpus Axenfeld
(DE) independently described a small diplobacillus, (Moraxella lacunata) as responsible for chronic infections of the
conjunctiva and cornea in man (59; 1152). The
organism is sometimes referred to as the Morax-Axenfeld
bacillus.
Emile Charles Achard (FR) and Raoul Bensaude (FR) isolated a
bacillus from the tissues of a patient recovering from a typhoid-like disease.
The isolant resembled the typhoid bacillus but differed from it in important
particulars. This probably represents the first isolation of a causative agent
of paratyphoid fever (10).
Benjamin Minge Duggar (US) described toxic septicemia of the
squash bug, Anasa tristis DeG., and
assigned the bacterium Bacillus
entomotoxicon as the etiological agent (480). It was
later decided that the agent is Bacterium
entomotoxicon.
Henry Koplik (US) found that red skin spots with a minute
bluish-white center (Koplik spots) are diagnostic of measles (rubeola) (927).
Robert Almer Harper (US) discovered the ascospore and sexual
reproduction in the Ascomycetes (745).
Rudolf Albert von Kölliker (CH) gave the
name axon to the axis cylinder of the
nerve cell (1694).
Abbott H. Thayer (US) proposed that the background not only
conceals camouflaged animals because they blend into it but because of what he
called countershading—a device that
makes creatures look flat. In countershading,
an animal’s colors are precisely graded to counteract the effects of sunlight
and shadow. Countershaded animals are darkest on top, where most sunlight
falls, and lightest on the bottom, e.g. penguins, orcas (1585). In 1903 he
wrote, "Every possible form of advantageous adaptation must somewhere
exist…. There must be unpalatability accompanied by warning coloration… and
equally plain that there must be mimicry." (1586)
Josef Jadassohn (DE) introduced the concept of the Patch Test to
dermatology and immunology (859).
Emil Herman Grubbé (DE), in 1896, initiated irradiation treatment
of a patient suffering from advanced recurrent cancer of the breast. The
condition was relieved, but she died shortly afterward of metastases. This
represents the first attempt at medical treatment using irradiation. By 1902,
Grubbé's practice reached the point where he was X-ray treating on an average
over seventy cases daily. He found X-ray treatment curative in cases of lupus,
epithelioma, nodular returns (post-operative), primary breast cancer,
tuberculous lung, tuberculous bone, cancers of soft internal organs, sarcomata,
and osteo-sarcomata. Although he burned every one of these patients he
considered this a necessary consequence. Grubbé remarked that in properly
selected so-called incurable cases the X-ray brought about remarkable results (709; 803).
Thor Stenbeck (SE), in 1899, initiated
the treatment of a 49-year-old woman's basal-cell carcinoma of the skin of the
nose, delivering over 100 treatments during 9 months. The patient was living
and well 30 years later (1538).
At the same time, Tage Anton Ultimus Sjörgen (SE) and Edvard Sederholm (SE)
cured a squamous cell epithelioma with fifty treatments over 30 months (1507).
Francis Williams (US) presented to the Boston City Hospital staff
several cases of carcinoma of the skin and of the lower lip healed by
fractionated irradiation (1789).
Henri-Alexander Danlos (FR) and Paul Bloch (FR) investigated
the use of radium in the treatment of skin diseases at the Saint Louis Hospital
of Paris (400).
Robert Waldo
Abbe (US) used radium as a surgical adjuvant in treating cancer (5).
Pierre Curie (FR), Charles Bouchard (FR), and Victor Balthazard
(FR) studied the effect of radium on animals and discovered that it can destroy
diseased cells. It cured tumors and certain kinds of cancer (378). This type
of therapy was to be called Curietherapy
and finally radiation therapy.
Walter Koenig (DE) published radiographs of front
teeth in the upper and lower jaw taken with x-rays. These were
the first dental radiographs (917).
Weston A. Price (US) showed that dental radiographies make it
possible to obtain clear and precise images of the contour of the roots of the
teeth (1321).
Vaughn Pendred (GB) was the first to draw attention
to the association of goiter with deaf-mutism (1281).
W. Lembke (DE) found that a marked difference might be brought
about in the character of the intestinal flora by the substitution of bread for
a meat diet (978; 979).
Thomas Clifford Allbutt (GB) was the first to point out that in
the middle and later stages of life men and women are liable to a rise of the
mean arterial pressure (hypertension) to an abnormal and even high degree (19).
Jean Hyacinthe Vincent (FR) described fusospirochetal disease or what was later called Vincent’s angina or trench mouth because he diagnosed it in the mouths of trench bound
soldiers in World War I (1660-1662).
Henri-Jules-Marie Rendu (FR) gave a clinical description of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (1352).
William Osler (CA-GB) described a family form of recurring
epistaxis, associated with multiple telangiectases of the skin and mucous
membranes (1228).
Antoine Bernard-Jean Marfan (FR) described a five-year-old female
patient, with long thin limbs, poor muscle development and an abnormally curved
spine. Dr. Marfan’s name became synonymous with patients affected by a disorder
of connective tissue affecting primarily the musculoskeletal system, the
cardiovascular system and the eye. The patients have an asthenic build, with
tall stature, long arms and legs and characteristic changes in the extremities,
particularly long and spider-like fingers, an arm span greater than height, Marfan’s syndrome (1063).
William Pringle Morgan (GB) was the first to publish a report
describing a congenital word-blind (dyslexia) patient (1156).
Fulgence Raymond (FR) did clinical and anatomical studies on
chorea, hemi-anesthesia and tremor. His papers and books on these subjects are
classics. This great clinician is also remembered for his investigation on
brain stem syringomyelia, muscle disorders, tremors, infections, neuritis and
especially tabes dorsalis (1343).
Friedrich Ernst Krukenberg (DE) described a malignant tumor of the
ovary he called fibrosarcoma ovarii
mucocellulare carcinomatodes, now known to be most frequently secondary to
malignancy of the gastrointestinal tract (941).
Joseph Jules François Félix Babinski (PL-FR) discovered that while
the normal reflex of the sole of the foot consists of a plantar reflex of the
toes, an injury to the pyramidal tract would show up in an isolated dorsal
flexion of the great toe - Babinski’s
sign (63). Others had
previously observed this reflex, but Babinski was the first to realize its
diagnostic significance.
Joseph Jules François Félix Babinski (PL-FR), Jean Nageotte (FR),
Auguste Tournay (FR) published on cerebrospinal
syphilis, cerebellar signs, and symptoms such as asynergia adiadochokinesia, on reflexes, on unilateral bulbar
lesions and on dystrophia
adiposogenitalia (64; 65; 70; 72).
George Thomas Beatson (GB) found that inoperable breast tumors
regressed following surgical removal of the ovaries (oöphorectomy) and
ingestion of thyroid tablets (128). This represents the first suggestion
of a linkage between breast cancer and hormones (or hormone-secreting tissue). Note:
Beateson suggested that the ovary and the testicle sent out "subtle and
mysterious influences" and that the ovaries influenced lactation, so he
undertook oöphorectomy. See, Cooke, 1979
Marin-Théodore Tuffier (FR) and Louis Hallion (FR), in 1896, published
their experiments on artificial respiration using intratracheal intubation with
an inflatable cuff tube (1624-1626). Note:
In 1910, he reported three successful uses of extrapleural pneumothorax.
Herbert Meyrick Nelson Milton (GB-EG) designed a vertical
sternal-splitting approach for the excision of tuberculous mediastinal nodes
and employed it successfully in a patient (1129). See, Marin-Théodore
Tuffier 1892 and Andreas Wesele Vesalius 1543.
John Benjamin Murphy (US)
was the first to reunite a severed femoral artery (severed by a gunshot wound).
He described this vascular surgery as follows: "A row of sutures was
placed around the edge of the overlapping distal end [of the femoral artery],
the sutures penetrating only the media of the proximal portion; the adventitia
was then drawn over the line of union and sutured. The clamps were removed. Not
a drop of blood escaped at the line of suture. Pulsation was immediately
restored in the artery below the line of approximation…. A pulsation could be
felt in the dorsalis pedis on October 11th, four days after the
operation. There were no oedema of the leg and no pain" (1167). This is
one of the earliest examples of vascular surgery.
Ludwig Wilhelm Carl Rehn (DE) was possibly the first surgeon to
successfully suture the heart. This occurred following a knife stab wound in
the right ventricle. Quoting Rehn, "I decided
to suture the heart wound. I used a small intestinal needle
and silk suture. The suture was tied in diastole. Bleeding
diminished remarkably with the third suture; all bleeding was controlled.
The pulse improved. The pleural cavity was irrigated. Pleura
and pericardium were drained with iodoform gauze. The incision
was approximated, heart rate and respiratory rate decreased,
and pulse improved post-operatively." The patient made a
complete recovery (871; 1347; 1348). Some
consider this the origin of cardiac surgery.
Ludwig Wilhelm Carl Rehn (DE) eleven years later reported 124
operations to suture cardiac wounds with a survival rate of 40 %. Rehn's
operations moved cardiac surgery from the realm of unethical adventure to
possible success in saving lives (1349). confirm ref
Journal
of Experimental Medicine was founded.
American
Journal of Physiology was founded.
The Paul-Ehrlich-Institut was founded as Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung (Institute for Serum
Research and Serum Testing) at Steglitz near Berlin as a test and research
institution.
1897
"This day designing God
Hath put into my hand
A wonderous thing. And God
Be praised. At his command
I have found thy secret deeds
Oh million-murdering Death.
I know that this little thing
A million men will save
Oh, death where is thy sting?
Thy victory oh grave?" Ronald Ross (GB) wrote in his notebook
upon his discovery of the relationship between man, malaria and the Anopheles mosquito (606).
"Hypotheses
come and go, but data remain." Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1338)
"Mastery of technique, [which is] so important that [...] it
may be stated that great discoveries are in the hands of the finest and most
knowledgeable experts on one or more of the analytical methods." (1338)
Joseph John Thomson (GB) announced the existence of negatively
charged particles smaller than an atom (1595; 1596). They were
then called cathode rays but were
later named electrons by George
Johnstone Stoney (GB), in 1891 (1557).
Karl Ferdinand Braun (DE) invented the oscilloscope (231).
David T. Day (US) described the separation of
petroleum fractions upon percolation through an adsorbent, a form of column
chromatography (402).
August Dupre
(GB) suggested that the controlled oxidation by bacteria of decomposable
substances might be made the basis of a process of sewage treatment. William
Joseph Dibdin (GB), a chemist, carried out a series of experiments initiated by
Dupre, which led in the early 1890s to the development of the contact filter,
one of the first successful forms of biological sewage treatment (429).
Eduard Buchner (DE) discovered that an extract of yeast, freed of
intact cells by filtration, retains the ability to ferment glucose to ethanol.
This observation demonstrated that the enzymes (enzyme = in yeast) of
fermentation could function independently of cell structure, contrary to
Pasteur’s earlier dictum that fermentations required living yeast cells.
Buchner called the cell free extract zymase (253-255). Note: the yeast extract was produced for
use in animal experiments but underwent change so rapidly that sugar was added
as a preservative. The action of the extract upon this added sucrose drew
Buchner’s attention to the fact that fermentation was proceeding in the absence
of yeast cells.
This work is seminal: first, because it discounted long held and
popular vitalistic theories that consider cellular processes as fundamentally
different from other principles of chemistry; secondly, it introduced a
methodology that would allow scientists to break down biochemical processes
into their individual steps; and, finally, the discovery of cell-free
fermentation opened the doors to one of the most important concepts in
biochemistry- the enzymatic theory of metabolism.
Augustyn Wróblewski (LV-RU-PL) showed that phosphate stimulates zymase activity (1832).
In 1897, oil of citronella (plant genus Cymbopogon) was first used
as an insect repellent (1478).
Herbert Spencer Jennings (US) and John Hunt Crosby (US) began
their pioneering studies on reactions to stimuli in unicellular organisms. This
led to such concepts as the trial-and-error behavior and many important
concepts concerning various forms of tropisms and taxes (863-869).
Filippo Bottazzi (IT) and Léon Frédéricq (BE) found that most
marine invertebrates are isotonic with the ocean
(208; 209; 618).
Arthur Ernst Eichengrün (DE) is known for developing the highly
successful anti-gonorrhea drug silver
proteinate (Protargol), the standard treatment for 50 years until the
adoption of antibiotics. It was also used to treat adenoiditis, pharyngitis,
Otis media, conjunctivitis, ophthalmia, and rhinitis (1650).
John Jacob Abel (US) and Albert Cornelius Crawford (US) determined
that the active ingredient of the blood-pressure-raising extract of the
suprarenal capsule (of the adrenal gland) could be isolated as a monobenzoyl
derivative. Epinephrin (epinephrine)
was the name Abel assigned to it while the pharmaceutical firms insisted on
calling it adrenaline. This was the
first isolation of an endocrine secretion as a chemically pure substance (6; 7).
Nikolai Kulchitsky (RU-GB) described a cell type in
the epithelium of the small intestine. These are
argentaffin cells found between the cells that line the glands of Lieberkühn of
the intestine (945).
It is known as Kulchitsky’s cell.
Benjamin
Moore (GB), D.P. Rockwood (GB), Heinrich Otto Wieland (DE), and Hermann Sorge
(DE) proposed that bile acids somehow form polymolecular complexes with fatty
acids (1148; 1782).
Leon Lack
(US) and Irwin M. Weiner (US) reported that the ileum actively transports
conjugated bile acids, thus providing for the first time a mechanism for
intestinal conservation of conjugated bile acids (949).
Bengt Borgström (SE), Göran Lundh (SE), and Alan F. Hofmann (US)
performed perfusion studies, which confirmed that the ileum is the major
site of conjugated bile acid replacement in man (203).
Alan F.
Hofmann (US) clarified the role of conjugated bile acids in enhancing lipid
absorption by showing that conjugated bile acids form mixed micelles with fatty
acids and monoglycerides in vitro (810).
Alan F.
Hofmann (US) and Bengt Borgström (SE)) isolated the micellar phase from small
intestinal content during fat digestion (811).
Suzie W. Huijghebaert
(BE), Alan F. Hofmann (US), Ashok K. Batta (US), Gerald Salen (US), Sarah
Shefer (US), Adrian Schmassmann (CH), M. Antonietta
Angellotti (IT), Huong-Thu Ton-Nu (US), Claudio D. Schteingart (US), Carlo
Clerici (IT), Steven S. Rossi (US), Marcus A. Rothschild (US), Bertram I. Cohen
(US), Richard J. Stenger (US), Erwin H. Mosbach (US), Richard G. Quist (US),
Jan Lillienau (SE), Kim E. Barrett (US), Sarah J. Longmire-Cook
(US), Young S. Kim (US), Rudy G. Danzinger (CA), Oliver Esch (US), Hans
Friedrich Fehr (CH), and Johannes Locher (CH) proved that
cholylsarcosine has all of the desired properties of a conjugated bile acid
replacement molecule making it potentially useful in the treatment of short bowel syndrome (SBS) (120; 836; 994; 1023; 1329; 1450; 1451).
John Newport Langley (GB) introduced the terms pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic in 1897 and gave the autonomic nervous system its
name in 1903. He named the cranial and sacral divisions of the autonomic
nervous system, which seemed to be involved with the restoration and
conservation of bodily resources, parasympathetic (961; 962; 1807).
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov; Iwan Petrowitsch Pawlow (RU), using dogs,
surgically produced a miniature stomach as a special pouch (Heidenhein-Pavlov
pouch) attached to the main stomach, both retaining their nerve supply. The
miniature stomach opened to the outside of the body and when food was received
into the main stomach, the small pouch secreted gastric juice of the same
quality as that secreted to deal with the food. By this means he succeeded for
the first time in obtaining samples of gastric juice uncontaminated with food.
In the animal with the gastric fistula Pavlov observed that after it saw or
smelled food, an abundant flow of gastric juice occurred. In some dogs he
brought the esophagus to the surface of the body, where it was sutured, and
then cut so that food taken by mouth would pass out of the upper end and food
introduced into the lower end passed into the stomach. Again, the sight or
smell of food caused copious secretion of both saliva and gastric juice, the
volume of gastric juice increasing as the animal was fed even though the food
never reached the stomach, but passed out the esophagus. This flow he termed psychic secretion and showed that it
depended upon reactions integrated at the level of the cerebral cortex since
removal of the cortex abolished the response. He also found that section of the
vagus nerve abolished secretion of gastric juice indicating that it is the
secretory nerve of the gastric glands (See,
Brodie, 1814). Food introduced into the stomach of sleeping dogs through the
esophageal opening stimulated gastric secretion. The volume, pepsin content, and acid content of the
gastric secretion varied with the food type. Pavlov called this phenomenon chemical secretion (1269-1271).
Robert Mearns Yerkes (US) and Sergius Morgulis (US) report that
Iwan Petrowitsch Pawlow or Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (RU) devised and introduced
into research a valuable new method of investigating the physiology of the
nervous system in its relations to the so-called psychic reactions of
organisms. It is called the Pawlow
salivary reflex method. They give a description of the method and a summary
of important results it has yielded (1840).
Bernhard Krönig (DE) and Theodor Paul (DE) described for the first
time many of the important methods needed to properly evaluate chemicals as
antiseptics and disinfectants. They pointed out that disinfectants could only
be accurately compared when certain conditions are fulfilled. The bacterial
test organism must have the same resistance and the number of bacteria must be
constant. After the application of the test agent for a specified length of
time its action must be promptly and completely stopped. Following treatment,
the bacteria must be transferred to the most favorable medium and kept at
optimum temperature. The result is determined by enumeration of survivors in
plate cultures. They emphasized that bacterial cells are not all killed
instantaneously, but that populations of cells die at a logarithmic rate with
the rate of kill directly proportional to the concentration of disinfecting
agent (938).
George Neil Stewart (US) reported on the blood circulation time
course and on the influences, which affect it (1548).
Eugen Rehfisch
(DE) established the paradigm that micturition is initiated and sustained by active
primary relaxation of the sphincter (1346).
Walter Migula (DE) introduced the order Thiobacteria for those microbes, which Winogradsky had called sulfur bacteria (1120).
Helen Beatrix Potter (GB), of The
Tale of Peter Rabbit fame, was an outstanding observer of nature. While
working in the British Museum, she reached the conclusion that lichens
represent a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae. Because of her sex,
she was not taken seriously. Her uncle, Henry Roscoe, read her paper before the
Linnean Society in London (1317; 1318; 1434). Note: while she was not the first to
make this observation, her work came shortly after that of Schwendener in 1869.
Michael Siedlecki (PL-DE) and Fritz Richard Schaudinn (DE) were
the first to describe the life history of Coccidiae (scale insects) (1503).
Edwin Grant Conklin (US), using the annelid worm Nereis, and Edmund Beecher Wilson (US),
using the limpet Crepidula,
discovered that the early embryonic cleavage events are the same in these
organisms from two different phyla. In both, the three quartets of micromeres
came off in the typical pattern of spiral cleavage: the first quartet
clockwise, the second counter-clockwise, and the third clockwise. But the truly
startling discovery was that both formed a d4 cell from which all mesodermal
structures are derived in later development (335; 1802).
Thomas Hunt Morgan (US) attempted to bring together the most
important results of studies of the development of the frog's egg to give a
continuous account of the development, as far as that was possible, from the
time when the egg is forming to the moment when the young tadpole issues from
the jelly-membranes (1154).
Adolf Wallenberg (DE), Cornelius Ubbo
Ariëns-Kappers (NL), and Willem Frederik Theunissen (NL) related
the olfactory system to recognition and taste for food (39; 40; 1726).
Rudolf Kraus (AT) discovered that by injecting animals with the
clear filtrates from liquid cultures of cholera, typhoid, or plague bacilli, he
obtained sera, which produce specific precipitates when mixed in vitro with samples of the filtrates,
which had been employed for the inoculation. Thus, the serum of animals
injected with cholera filtrates precipitated the latter but did not precipitate
the filtrates of other cultures. Kraus’s discovery of precipitating sera (precipitin) was confirmed by many
workers, and Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (BE) showed that it also
occurred with non-bacterial substances (201; 936).
Jacques Oudin (FR) modified this procedure by adding a small
amount of agar to the anti-serum forming a gel in a tube. When this was
overlaid with antigen a series of rings appeared in the gel corresponding to
the number of specific antigens and antibodies in the materials (1237).
Örjan Ouchterlony (SE) adapted the analysis of precipitin
reactions to gel plates. This greatly increased the precision of the analysis (1234-1236).
Masanori Ogata (JP) injected crushed fleas from rats dead of
plague into two mice, one of which died after three days. Based on this meager
evidence he correctly suggested that suctorial insects such as mosquitoes and
fleas transmit plague (1213).
Alexandre Émile Jean Yersin (CH) developed an antiserum to protect
against the bubonic plague bacillus (1843).
Alessandro Lustig (IT) and Gino Galeotti (IT) were the first to
isolate a toxin from Yersinia pestis (1033).
Paul-Louis Simond (FR) found organisms morphologically
indistinguishable from plague bacilli in the stomach of fleas, which had fed
upon rats and mice dying of plague. He succeeded in infecting a mouse by
injecting an extract of crushed fleas taken from a plague rat. Simond found
that in the absence of fleas the plague was not transmitted from sick or dead
rats to healthy rats in close proximity, but in at least two incidents he
observed transmission when fleas were present. He incorrectly concluded that
contaminated flea feces were being introduced at the site of fleabites (1505). This and
Ogata’s work above represents the discovery that fleas vector the plague.
Robert H. Pollitzer (AT-US) concluded, "Pulex irritans
plays the main role in the spread of human plague" (1311). Note: this is the human
flea.
Paul Ehrlich (DE) discovered that antibodies act by combining with
the substances, which incited their production and observed that the plant
poison ricin causes mouse erythrocytes to agglutinate and that he could prevent
this agglutination in vitro and in vivo with anti-ricin serum provided
the ratio of ricin to anti-ricin was proper. He discovered that if non-immune
mice are given anti-ricin serum it can protect them from the effects of ricin.
Finding that there is a direct union of ricin and anti-ricin in vitro, Ehrlich concluded that it was
necessarily a chemical process.
He discovered that the union of antitoxin and toxin is accelerated
by mild heat and retarded by cold. He also demonstrated that the reaction took
place more quickly in concentrated than in dilute solutions.
In trying to determine what proportions of antitoxin and toxin
produced the optimum reaction Ehrlich discovered that toxins are unstable and
tend to deteriorate into less potent versions he called toxoids. Although these toxins slowly lose their toxicity he found
that their ability to stimulate an immune response remained relatively constant
over time. Based on these observations he theorized that a toxin consists of
two portions, one of which, the haptophore,
brings about the union with the antitoxin, whereas the other—the toxophore—is, as its name implies, the
carrier of the toxic action. He studied several different samples of diphtheria toxin and from them laid down
the principles for the accurate standardization of antitoxic sera.
Ehrlich
improved Behring's diphtheria antitoxin and established an international
standard for this and other antitoxins. The first exposition of his side-chain
theory of immunity also appeared in the 1897b paper (514-516).
Almroth Edward Wright (GB) and Frederick Smith (GB)
devised an Agglutination Test for the diagnosis of undulant fever (1828).
Arnaldo
Angelucci (IT) was the first to describe a nonbacterial conjunctivitis
characteristically occurring in the spring. It is accompanied by tachyardia,
vasomotor lability, lacrimation, photophobia, and sometimes hyperexcitability.
Believed to be of allergic origin, affecting both sexes and all ages. A
cutaneous or mucous itching with sudden onset and sudden termination are
typical. Etiology unknown (28).
This condition is known as Angelucci’s syndrome
Wilhelm Max Wundt (DE) added alkaline and metallic tastes to the
four basic tastes: sour, sweet, bitter and salty. He is considered the father of modern psychology (1833).
Waldemar Mordecai Wolff Haffkine (RU-CH-FR) used killed plague
microorganisms as a vaccine against the plague (727).
George Fredericc Still (GB) identified the three categories of
juvenile chronic arthritis. The systemic form is now often referred to as Still's Disease (1550).
Wilhelm Theodor Engelmann (DE) was the first to distinguish the
four types of activity of the heart nerves: inotropic, bathmotropic,
chronotropic, and dromotropic (544).
Constantin von Monakow (RU-DE) wrote Gehirnpathologie with 3000 references, and articles on lead encephalopathy, aphasia and apraxia. His greatest work as a clinician was Die Localization in Grosshirn und der Abbau ler Funktion durch
Korticale Herde. He introduced concepts, which made present clinical
neurology a truly biological science of organismal dynamics in human behavior (1708; 1709).
Leonard Erskine Hill (GB) and Harold Leslie Barnard (GB) described
a simple and accurate form of sphygmometer or arterial pressure gauge contrived
for clinical use (793).
Nikolai Sergeievich Korotkov (RU) discovered the auscultatory
method of measuring arterial pressure, "The cuff of Riva-Rocci is placed
on the middle third of the upper arm; the pressure within the cuff is quickly
raised up to complete cessation of circulation below the cuff. Then, letting
the mercury of the manometer fall one listens to the artery just below the cuff
with a children's stethoscope. At first no sounds are heard. With the falling
of the mercury in the manometer down to a certain height, the first short tones
appear; their appearance indicates the passage of part of the pulse wave under
the cuff. It follows that the manometric figure at which the first tone appears
corresponds to the maximal pressure. With the further fall of the mercury in
the manometer one hears the systolic compression murmurs, which pass again into
tones (second). Finally, all sounds disappear. The time course of the cessation
of sounds indicates the free passage of the pulse wave; in other words, at the
moment of the disappearance of the sounds the minimal blood pressure within the
artery predominates over the pressure in the cuff. It follows that the
manometric figures at this time correspond to the minimal blood pressure." (928).
Claudien Philippe (FR) Max S. Löwenthal (GB) and Victor Alexander
Haden Horsley (GB) reported the inhibition of decerebrate (removal of the
cerebrum) rigidity by localized stimulation of the cerebellar cortex (1028).
Edward Flatau (PL) reported that the greater the length of the
fibers in the spinal cord the closer they are situated to the periphery (587).
George Frederic
Still (GB) provided the landmark description of chronic arthritis in children
when he described 22 children with chronic arthritis and commented that most
had a disease that differed from chronic arthritis as described in adults (1550).
Cesar Roux (CH) attached the small intestine to the stapled off
upper third of the stomach and joined it in a Y formation to the now quiescent
exit from the lower two thirds of the stomach (1383). This is
called a Roux-en-Y operation in his honor.
Carl B. Schlatter (CH), in 1897, performed the first successful
complete gastrectomy (1447).
John Jacob Abel (US) was one of the most important individuals
involved in the transfer of medical knowledge from Europe to America. After
graduating from the University of Michigan in pharmacy in 1883 he spent one
year at Johns Hopkins then studied medicine and chemistry in Europe under His,
Braune, Schwalbe, Carl Ludwig, Oswald Schmiedeberg, Heinrich Ferdinand Edmund
Drechsel, Hoppe-Seyler, Marcellus von Nencki, and Johannes Adolf Wislicenus. He
earned the M.D. degree from the University of Strasbourg in 1888 then interned
in Vienna. Upon returning to America he taught at the University of Michigan
and Johns Hopkins University.
Louis-Antoine Ranvier (FR) and Édouard-Gérard Balbiani (FR) founded
the Archives d'Anatomie Microscopique.
1898
"When reading Beijerinck's 1898 publication, one must
conclude that he was the first to internationally voice the novel nature of the
agent causing tobacco mosaic, completely different from microbial corpuscular
organisms. When he claims that 'the infection is not caused by a microbe, but
by a contagium vivum fluidum', thence in his paper called a virus, he
specifies it to be a 'liquid or soluble agent' that "reproduces itsef in
the living plant". Martinus Willum Beijerinck (139; 207).
Pierre Currie (FR), Marie Skodowska Curie (PL-FR), and Gustave
Bémont (FR) presented the papers, which announced the discovery of radium. They
first proposed the name polonium, because Marie was from Poland, then changed
it to radium (379; 380). Marie also
presented this discovery in her doctoral thesis (377).
Jacobus Hendricus van’t Hoff (NL) and Arthur Croft-Hill (GB)
affirmed that enzymes, like inorganic catalysts, promote the rate of reversible
reactions in both directions (364; 1649).
Joseph H. Kastle (US) and Arthur S. Loevenhart (US) demonstrated
the reversibility of enzymes using lipase (884).
Arthur Croft-Hill (GB) announced the first enzymatic synthesis,
that of isomaltose (364).
Frank George Edmed (GB) determined the structure of oleic acid (502).
Frantisek Vejdovsky (CZ) and Alois Mrazek (CZ) are credited with
the discovery of the centrosome in animal cells. They called it the periplast (1653).
Thomas Harrison Montgomery Jr. (US)
performed comparative cytological studies, with especial regard to the
morphology of the nucleolus (1146).
Karl von Sternberg (AT) and Dorothy
Mendenhall née Reed (US) provided the first definitive microscopic descriptions
of Hodgkin's disease. They described
what are now called Reed–Sternberg cells (also known as lacunar histiocytes).
These are giant cells usually derived from B lymphocytes, classically
considered crippled germinal center B cells, meaning they have not undergone
hypermutation to express their antibody (1344; 1712).
Robert Adolf Armand Tigerstedt (FI) and Per Gustaf Bergman (FI)
extracted rabbit kidney and showed that it contained a principle, which raised
blood pressure upon intravenous injection into other rabbits. They called the
principle renin (1605). Renin would later be found to promote
the release of angiotensin, a powerful pressor agent.
Franz Volhard (DE) suggested that pallid (renal) hypertension
results from a pressor substance released from ischemic kidney(s) contributing—via
a vicious cycle—to a further rise in blood pressure with
subsequent renovascular injury and aggravation of hypetension (1665).
Adolf Hartwich (DE), one of Volhard's disciples, demonstrated in
1930 that ligation of the renal artery in dogs caused a transient rise in blood
pressure (939).
John Loesch (AT-HU-US) induced essential hypertension in
experimental animals using renal ischemia (1010; 1011).
Harry Goldblatt (US), James Lynch (US), Ramon F. Hanzal (US), and
Ward W. Summerville (US) reported experiments in dogs in which they induced
high blood pressure (hypertension) by constricting either one or both main
renal arteries with an adjustable silver clamp they had devised (677). They produced severe renal
ischemia with a resulting syndrome, which closely simulated the malignant phase
of human essential hypertension (675-677).
Harry Goldblatt (US) proposed the existence of a humoral mechanism
due to the release of a pressor substance by the kidney (674). Note: These experiments
led to the elucidation of the renin-angiotensin
system and its relationship to many other volume-pressure regulatory
mechanisms such as aldosterone, prostaglandins, kinases, and lately nitric
oxide (NO) among others.
Edward Lee Thorndike (US), and Richard Sessions Woodworth (US) described
his puzzle box and began work, which
led to his proposed psychological law of
effect. In full it reads: "Of several responses made to the same
situation those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to
the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the
situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those
which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will,
other things being equal, have their connections to the situation weakened, so
that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the
satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the
bond." His works include Psychology
of Learning and The Measurement of
Intelligence (1598-1603; 1821).
Giuseppe Sanarelli (IT) discovered that myxomatosis is a virus
disease of wild and domestic rabbits, benign in the South American rabbit but
usually fatal in the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus). He first found it in a native South American rabbit, Sylvilagus braziliensis Linnaeus, in
Brazil. This was the first time that a tumor disease in animals was shown to be
caused by a filterable agent, i.e., virus (1432). Note:
the first poxvirus
Shotaro Hori (JP) was the first to associate the plant disease bakanae (foolish seedlings) with
infection by the fungus Gibberella
fujikuroi, although he at first identified the fungus as Fusarium heterosporum (823-825).
Eiichi Kurosawa (CN) produced the symptoms of the bakanae disease in rice and maize
seedlings solely by treating them with a culture medium in which Gibberella fujikuroi had been grown (947).
Teijiro Yabuta (JP) and Yusuke Sumiki (JP) isolated the bakanae factor, crystallized it, and
named it gibberellin (1836; 1837).
Edmond Isidore Étienne Nocard (FR), Pierre Paul Émile Roux (FR),
Amédée Borrel (FR), Alexandre Salimbeni (FR), and Edouard Dujardin-Beaumetz
(FR) grew the causative agent of cattle pleuropneumonia in vitro for the first time. It was grown on a serum-enriched
medium and referred to as PPLO (pleuropneumonia-like organism) (1200). Today it
is placed in either the genus Mycoplasma
or Acholeplasma.
Louis Ladislaus Dienes (US) and Geoffrey Edsall (US) made the
first isolation of mycoplasmas from man finding it as the apparent cause for
suppuration of Bartholin’s gland (435).
Monroe D. Eaton (US), Gordon Meikeljohn (US), and William Van
Herick (US) isolated and cultivated the causative agent of atypical pneumonia
in man (489).
Maurice C. Shepard (US) discovered the so-called T strains (tiny
colonies 15 to 20µ) which appeared to produce nongonococcal urethritis in man (1488).
Robert Merritt Chanock (US), Leonard Hayflick (US), and Michael F.
Barile (US) were the first to cultivate Mycoplasma
pneumoniae on an artificial medium (306).
Robert Merritt Chanock (US) named the agent Mycoplasma pneumoniae (305).
Kiyoshi Shiga (JP) and Shibasaburo Kitasato (JP), while studying
an epidemic of dysentery in Japan, discovered the bacillus of dysentery, now
named Shigella dysenteriae. They
employed the methodology of Koch’s postulates and the agglutination of axenic cultures by serum from patients
with dysentery (1493-1495).
Walther Kruse (DE) found the dysentery bacillus during an
epidemic of dysentery in the Ruhr area (942).
This bacterium is often referred to as the (Shiga-Kruse bacillus).
Adrien Veillon (FR) and Alfred Zuber (FR) found Bacteroides fragilis in 22 cases of
appendicitis (1651). Since then
it has been found in lung, pelvic and hepatic abscesses, in septicemias with
metastatic abscesses, and in infections of the urinary tract. The bacterial
genus Veillonella is named to honor
Adrien Veillon.
Benjamin Robinson Schenck (US) isolated a fungus, Sporotrichum sp., from a patient with
refractory subcutaneous abscesses on his arm (1441). He would
later be commemorated when it was named Sporotrichum
schenckii. The infection is called sporotrichosis.
Charles Lucien de Beurmann (FR) and Henri Gougerot (FR) carried
out extensive and detailed studies of sporotrichosis (403-406).
Sporothrix
schenckii
was renamed Sporotrichum beurmanni.
Justin Jolly (FR) made a detailed in vitro study of the behavior of different kinds of leukocytes and
ultimately succeeded in keeping the leukocytes of the newt (Triton) alive for one month (873-876).
Carl August Ljunggren (SE) demonstrated that human skin could
still be successfully grafted after being stored for weeks in ascitic fluid (1002).
Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (BE) discovered that immune
hemolysis of erythrocytes can be the result of mixing the cells with heated
anti-RBC serum and unheated normal serum.
On adding to a suspension of rabbit’s blood corpuscles in salt
solution a small quantity of guinea-pig immune serum, the blood corpuscles of
the rabbit rapidly clumped together (agglutination), and the hemoglobin passed
into the medium leaving behind the colorless stromata or shadows. Heated to 55°C. for half an hour the hemolytic property of
the immune serum was found to have disappeared. If then to a mixture of
rabbits’ corpuscles and inactive, i.e., to heated guinea-pig immune serum
Bordet added a quantity of serum from a normal guinea-pig or a normal rabbit,
the phenomenon of hemolysis soon took place. The guinea pig immune serum was
found to have no effect on the corpuscles of guinea pigs or pigeons. In fact,
it had a specific effect only on the corpuscles of the animal (rabbit) with
which the guinea pig had been originally injected. Bordet also showed that a
hemolytic destruction of corpuscles takes place in the peritoneal cavity of an
immunized guinea pig. If the immune serum is heated to 55°C. and is then mixed
with the homologous red blood corpuscles, the latter are hemolyzed in the
peritoneum of a normal animal.
In the nomenclature of Bordet, the thermolabile factor in
hemolysis was named alexine and the
thermostable element the substance
sensibilisatrice, whereas Paul Ehrlich (DE) and Julius Morgenroth (DE)
spoke of them as complement and amboceptor respectively. The latter
names have persisted (200; 519; 520).
Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (DE) and Ernst Marx (DE)
considered that anti-cholera antibodies are produced especially in the spleen,
lymph nodes, and bone marrow, and this was supported by experiments of others (1297).
Walter Bradford Cannon (US) was the first to use Röntgen’s x-rays
for physiological purposes. To do this, he devised a bismuth meal, a suspension
of material of high atomic weight which was harmless, and which was opaque to
x-rays. After such a meal, the intestinal system would stand out as white
against a black background, under x-rays. For the first time, men could see the
body’s soft internal organs on display while the outer skin remained intact.
The diagnosis of gastric ulcer and malignancy of any part of the
gastro-intestinal tract by means of a bismuth or barium meal followed by
fluoroscopy or radiophotography became a common clinical method (283).
William Thomas Councilman (US), Frank Burr Mallory (US), and James
Homer Wright (US) provided a detailed study of cerebrospinal meningitis
and its relation to other forms of meningitis (348).
Montoya (CO) and J.B. Flores (CO) were the first to report tinea nigra as a disease state. They
called it Caraté noir (1147).
Alexandre Cerqueira (BR) produced a well-documented description of
tinea nigra in 1891 but it was not
published until 1916 when his son Antonio Gentil de Castro Cerqueira-Pinto (BR)
described it as keratomycosis nigricans
palmaris in his medical thesis (302).
Paulo
Parreiras
Horta (BR) named the fungal agent Cladosporium
wernickii (830).
John McFadyean (GB) and Frederick Hobday (GB), in dogs, reported
the first cell-free transmission of papillomas (1093).
Johann Petruschky (DE) suggested that convalescent cases of
typhoid fever might be able to infect healthy individuals by means of typhoid
bacilli in their urine (1287).
Paul Frosch (DE) confirmed the suggestion of Petruschky (631; 632).
Karl Wilhelm von Drigalski (DE) found that apparently healthy
individuals might pass typhoid bacilli in their feces, i.e., healthy carriers (1674).
Henry Fairfield Osborn (US) enunciated the concept of adaptive
radiation in evolution. Starting from an ancestral stock species, variations in
the stock would allow a species to occupy niches previously unavailable (1222).
Bernhard Naunyn (DE) published Der
Diabetes Melitus in which he presented evidence to refute the prevailing
opinion of the supposed benefit of a high-protein diet in the treatment of diabetes melitus (1174).
Guido Banti (IT) demonstrated that the spleen is the principal
site for the destruction of erythrocytes, and that this normal function is
exaggerated when the spleen becomes enlarged pathologically (85-87).
Francis Galton (GB) presented his ancestoral law of heredity (642). Ronald
Aylmer Fisher (GB) later found this law to be the natural consequence of
Mendelian inheritance for polygenic traits. See,
Fisher, 1918.
Walther
Flemming (DE) postulated that the diploid chromosome number in man was 24 (599).
See, Tjio 1956 for the correct cound.
Charles Scott Sherrington (GB) described decerebrate (removal of
the cerebrum) rigidity in the cat (1490).
Charles Scott Sherrington (GB) demonstrated axon branching and
showed that the axonal pain pathways are proof of an organized sensory network.
He worked on determining the region (dermatome)
of skin supplied by each dorsal root (1489).
Henry Head (GB) and Alfred Walter Campbell (AU-GB) reported that
the cardinal pathologic features of Herpes zoster (shingles) are
inflammation and hemorrhagic necrosis with associated neuritis, localized
leptomeningitis, unilateral segmental poliomyelitis, and degeneration of
related motor and sensory roots. They established the concept of the dermatome
based on the correlation between the area of skin affected by the Herpes zoster rash and the consequent
scarring and degeneration in the trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia found at
autopsy.
They found that many herpetic areas representing the peripheral
distribution of single roots or individual sections of the cord corresponded
closely with areas of referred pain from diseases of different internal organs.
This led Head to conclude that irradiation of abnormal afferent impulses
produces a state of excessive irritability in the grey matter of the dorsal
horn at the level where they enter it. Because of this, impulses from the skin
that pass through it are exaggerated or disordered so that a stimulus that
would not usually provoke a painful reaction does so (757; 758).
Otfrid Foerster (DE) made a thorough study of the human dermatomes, including overlap in nerve
distributions. This overlapping is correct and conflicts with some of Head’s
conclusions. Foerster suggested the concept
of gate control. This theory asserts that large nerve fibers can inhibit
small nerve fibers during a painful experience. He also introduced
topographical localization of function, suggesting that pain fibers are in
different locations from temperature and touch fibers (601).
William Henry Howell (US) showed that the pituitary’s blood
pressure lowering activity resides in the posterior lobe (831).
John Newport Langley (GB) and William I. Dickinson (GB) coined the
phrase autonomic nervous system, and
the term parasympathetic (963).
Karel Frederik Wenckebach (NL-AT) described a sequence of cardiac
cycles in the electrocardiogram. It is a form of incomplete atrioventricular
heart block in which there is progressive lengthening of conduction time course
in cardiac tissue with P-R interval increasing until there is not a ventricular
response. This is followed by a conducted beat with a short P-R interval, and
then the cycle repeats itself. This occurs frequently after an inferior
myocardial infarction and tends to be self-limiting. Today it is referred to as
a type 1 second-degree atrioventricular (AV) block or Wenckebach’s phenomenon (1758; 1759).
John Hay (GB) discovered the form of second-degree AV block
currently known as type 2 block or Mobitz type 2 auriculoventricular block (753).
Woldemar Mobitz (DE) provided electrocardiographic proof of Hay’s
discovery (1136).
Georges Hayem (FR) gave the first adequate description of acquired hemolytic jaundice (Hayem-Widal’s disease) (755).
John Benjamin Murphy (US) announced his technique of treating tubercular
lungs by intentional pneumothorax (1168; 1169).
George H. Monks (US) developed a new method for restoration of a
lower eyelid by plastic surgery. An apical patch was cut, pulled through the
corner of the eye socket then attached below (1139).
Gustav Killian (DE) introduced bronchoscopy when he succeeded
in the removal of a piece of bone from the right main stem bronchus of a
63-year-old man (900).
Marin-Théodore Tuffier (FR) and Louis Hallion (FR) incised a dying
patient’s chest on the wards of La Pitie Hospital and carried out manual
cardiac massage. This act, based on animal experimentation, led to the first
published surgical exposure of the unwounded human heart. Although the patient
recovered briefly, the recovery could not be sustained because of a clot in the
pulmonary artery (1627).
Leonardo Gigli (IT) developed a safe method for temporary cranial
resection using a grooved probe and a wire saw (667).
Ernst Wertheim (AT-HU), in 1898, performed the first radical
abdominal hysterectomy for cervical cancer. This operation involved removal of
the uterus, parametrium, tissues surrounding the upper vagina, and pelvic lymph
nodes, but leaving the ovaries intact (1766; 1768).
Gheorghe Marinescu (RO), between 1898 and 1901, made the first
science films in the world: [1] The walking troubles of organic hemiplegy
(1898), The walking troubles of organic paraplegies (1899), A case of
hysteric hemiplegy healed through hypnosis (1899), The walking troubles
of progressive locomotion ataxy (1900) and Illnesses of the muscles
(1901) (483).
Ernest Thompson Seton (GB-US) wrote Wild Animals I Have Known. This book had a profound positive impact
on the public's perception of natural predators such as the wolf of North
America (1479).
The Russian Hydrographic Survey of the Biology of Lake Baikal was
undertaken between 1876 and 1902. This survey, led by Fedor Kirillovich
Drizhenko (RU), found several unique endemic freshwater animals that had become
extinct in the rest of the world. The unique fauna in this lake exemplify the
power of isolation in the evolutionary process (462; 463).
Paul Marchal (FR) founded the first agricultural entomology
research unit. He was head of the Entomological Laboratory at INA, Paris, where
basic and applied research on entomophagous insects took place.
1899
"The good physician treats the disease; the great physician
treats the patient who has the disease." William Osler (CA-GB), c.
1899-1905 (1313)
The sixth cholera pandemic killed more than 800,000 in India
before moving into the Middle East, northern Africa, Russia and parts of
Europe. By 1923, cholera had receded from most of the world, although many
cases were still present in India.
Carl Ernst Arthur Wichman (DE-NL) crystallized a protein from the
albumin fraction of whey by addition of ammonium sulfate and acidification (1776).
Paul Gerson Unna (DE) and Artur Pappenheim (DE) developed the
Unna-Pappenheim stain, the most common stain for blood smears. It was
originally used for gonococci, but later used to demonstrate plasma cells
during chronic inflammation. It detects RNA and DNA in tissue sections with the
RNA staining red and the DNA staining green (1257; 1637)
Pierre Émile Duclaux (FR) observed that extracellular production
of proteases and saccharase in Aspergillus
occurred in response to the addition of protein and sucrose to the medium in
which the organism was grown. This is the origin of the analysis of the
regulation of protein synthesis (475). This
phenomenon was later called enzymatic
adaptation. Melvin Cohn (US), Jacques Lucien Monod (FR), Martin Pollack
(GB), Solomon Spiegelman (US), and Roger Yate Stanier (CA) named it enzyme induction (326).
Frédéric Dienert (FR) showed that yeast grown on glucose breaks
down glucose but not galactose, but yeast grown on galactose breaks down either
galactose or glucose. If yeast is grown in the presence of glucose and
galactose, then the glucose is broken down first. He obtained similar results
with other sugars (434).
Henning Karström (FI) was the first person to carefully
investigate enzyme induction. He found that certain enzymes are always present,
regardless of the medium type, whereas other enzymes are only formed when their
substrates are present. He coined the term constitutive
to describe those enzymes always present, and adaptive to describe those induced by substrate. His work is based
on studies of carbohydrate metabolism in Gram-negative enteric bacteria (882).
Marjory Stephenson (GB) and John Yudkin (GB) demonstrated the
adaptation of bacteria to different biochemical environments (1541; 1848; 1849).
Jacques Lucien Monod (FR) observed that when Bacillus subtilis or Escherichia
coli are grown on a mixture of two sugars, growth occurs in two distinct
phases separated by a lag time. During the first phase only one of the two
sugars is metabolized, and the second begins to be degraded only when the first
sugar has totally disappeared. Glucose was found to be in the first category
and lactose in the second (1140; 1141).
Jacques Lucien Monod (FR) christened this phenomenon diauxie, in bacteria. Diauxie is from a Greek root meaning
double growth (1142; 1143).
Jacques Lucien Monod (FR) would relate enzymatic adaption to
genetics and cellular differentiation (1144).
Rudolf Albert von Kölliker (CH) indicated in his memoirs that he had
earlier identified and named osteoclasts,
explaining that these multinucleated cells are active in osseous absorption and
removal (1695).
Noël Bernard
(FR) established that orchid seed germination requires a mycorrhizal
relationship (155; 156).
Ludwig Edinger (DE) made many discoveries including his
description of the ventral and dorsal spinocerebellar tract, clarifying
polio-encephalon and neo-encephalitis, dividing the
cerebellum on physiological as well as anatomical grounds into a paleo- and
neocerebellum (499-501).
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer (DE) wrote Das Becken, one of the most complete
books which has ever been accomplished in the field of topographic anatomy; it
is a real treasure trove of everything scientific, both for the specialist
anatomists and for the practical physicians (1724).
Theobald Smith (US) determined the thermal death time of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in milk to be
15 minutes at 60°C (1517).
Maurice Nicolle (FR) and Mustafa Adil-Bey (TR) discovered that the
etiological agent of rinderpest or cattle plague is a virus (1190-1192). Note:
first morbillivirus
The
Rinderpest Virus Eradication Campaign, begun in 1945 by the United Nations Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO) was officially declared a success during
June 2011 in Rome (1096). The
announcement proclaimed, “…for only the second time in history, a disease has
been wiped off the face of the earth”. This long but little-known campaign to
conquer rinderpest is a tribute to
the skill and bravery of “big animal” veterinarians, who fought the disease in
remote and sometimes war-torn areas — across arid stretches of Africa larger
than Europe, in the Arabian desert, and on the Mongolian steppes.
Allan Macfayden (GB) and Sidney Rowland (GB) were the first to
test the effect of extremely low temperatures on the viability of bacteria (1042).
Harvey Williams Cushing (US) reports that a vaginal gonococcus infection can ultimately lead to acute diffuse peritonitis (384).
Hugh Hampton Young (US) performed most of the bacteriological
analyses leading to this discovery (1).
Carl Franz Joseph Erich Correns (DE), unaware of Johann Gregor
Mendel’s (Moravian-CZ) earlier work, independently discovered the laws of
genetics while carrying out hybridization experiments with stock, maize, beans,
peas, and lilies. Upon discovering that Mendel had preceded him he published
his own work merely as confirmation (343; 344; 346; 1544).
Lucien Claude Jules Cuénot (FR) proved experimentally that sex is
not influenced by exterior conditions and acknowledged that determination took
place as early as the egg stage (366). Note: obviously he did not choose
organisms like some reptiles where the incubation temperature influences sex.
Adolf Oswald (DE) demonstrated that the iodine of the thyroid is
firmly bound to a globulin-like protein and introduced the term thyroglobulin (1232).
Lucien Claude Jules Cuénot (FR) proposed that armadillos from the
same litter are true twins born of polyembryony (366).
W. James Loughry (US), Paulo A. Prodöhl (US), Colleen M. McDonough
(US) and John Charles Avise (US) confirmed this when they found that in the
nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus
novemcinctus)
a litter always consisted of four same-sex, genetically identical siblings. A
single fertilized egg splits, leading to four embryos each of which develops
into a separate individual (1025).
Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (BE) in his paper on the
mechanism of agglutination, drew attention to the remarkable fact that
agglutinins are absorbed from serum when the latter is saturated with the
homologous organism. He showed that if immune horse serum is mixed with cholera
vibrios and if after contact the vibrios are removed by centrifugation, the
clear fluid of the supernatant fraction no longer retains its agglutinating
property for cholera vibrios while its agglutinating power on typhoid bacilli
persists. Conversely, by saturation first with typhoid bacilli the typhoid
agglutinins are removed, whereas the supernatant fraction can still agglutinate
cholera vibrios. This experiment pointed to a way of making a serum very
specific by absorbing out unwanted agglutinins (201).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) and Julius Morgenroth (DE) presented Ehrlich’s Theory of the Lysins. Normal
serum is often strongly bacteriolytic for certain species of bacteria (typhoid,
cholera, etc.). The bacteriolytic action is due to two distinct principles
acting in concert, the intermediate body (Zwischenkörper) and the complement.
The intermediate body has an affinity for the bacillus, or rather for certain
of the albumin molecules that go to make up the protoplasm of the bacillus and
enters chemical combination with such molecules. The complement then enters
combination with the intermediate body and by its enzymatic nature can dissolve
or destroy the albumin molecules of the bacillus to such an extent that the
bacillus itself is destroyed (518).
Michael Siedlecki (PL-DE) published the first complete life cycle
of a gregarine (Adelea ovata living
in Lithobius forticatus) (1502).
Stabsarzt Slawyk (DE) isolated and cultured the influenza bacillus
(Hemophilus influenzae) from the
blood and spinal (lumbar puncture) fluid of a
child with meningitis (1508).
Martha
Wollstein (US) demonstrated the transmissibility of Hemophilus
influenzae infection and the capacity of this organism to cause purulent
meningitis (1820).
She drew attention to the marked tendency for Hemophilus
influenzae type b meningitis to occur in infants and young children.
LeRoy D.
Fothergill (US) and Joyce Wright (US) noted the protective role of passively
transmitted maternal antibodies, and the inadequacy of host immune response
from infancy to age 3 years against Hemophilus
influenzae type b meningitis (607).
Max Freudweiler (CH) made the connection that uric acid crystals
cause gout (624).
Wilhelm His, Jr. (CH) and Max Freudweiler (CH) clearly
showed that urate crystals cause inflammation (625; 801).
Wilhelm
Ebstein (DE) found that localized death of tissue (necrosis) is a primary event
in gout (491).
Caesar Peter Møller Boeck (NO) described a disease characterized
by build-up of perivascular sarcomatoid tissue resulting from excessively rapid
proliferation of epithelioid connective-tissue cells. He called it multiple benign sarcoid. Today it is
called sarcoidosis (193).
George Washington Crile (US) documented the results of his
extensive experimental studies on shock and hypertension (360; 362).
George Washington Crile (US) developed a "shockless"
method of anesthesia ("anoci-association") by which he attempted to
isolate the operative site from the nervous system, where he believed surgical
shock to originate. Anoci-association made use of generous premedication with
morphine and atropine, regional (procaine) block, and anesthesia by inhalation
of nitrous oxide and oxygen administered by trained anesthetists (363).
Max Wilms (DE) described a case of nephroblastoma—Wilms tumor. He
performed a successful nephrectomy, but the cancer returned and the patient
died (1797).
Jean-Louis Prévost (CH) and Frederic Batelli (CH) were the first
to thoroughly study the effects of electrical discharge on the heart. They
noted that if shock was applied within seconds of the onset of fibrillation,
the result was defibrillation, which successfully restored sinus rhythm (1320).
Henry Chandler Cowles (US) studied plants on the Indiana sand
dunes. This work yielded the first thorough working out of a complete plant
successional series leading to a climax phenomenon (350-352).
Arthur George Tansley (GB) said, "It is to Henry Chandler Cowles
that we owe, not indeed the first recognition or even the first study of
succession, but certainly the first thorough working out of a strikingly
complete and beautiful successional series." (1577)
Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen (DK) was
the first person in the world to systematically ring birds. He started in 1899,
ringing 165 young Starlings with numbered and addressed rings hoping that some
of the birds would be found and the rings returned with information about
finding place and date (4; 1499). See, Audubon, 1810.
Robert Kirk (GB) produced sensitization to
Primrose (Primula obconica) tissue by
applying the plant repeatedly to irritated skin under occlusive dressings (905).
Bruno Bloch (CH) and Aida Steiner-Wourlisch (CH) sensitized humans
and guinea pigs to crystalline material from primrose leaves by applying it to
the skin (186; 187).
N.S.Wedroff (RU) experimentally sensitized humans to 2:4
dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) through the skin (1749).
Rudolf L. Mayer (DE) sensitized humans and guinea pigs to p-phenylenediamine
using salve (1086).
Gabriel Anton (AT) and Joseph Jules Francois
Félix Babinski (FR) provided a detailed description and explanation of visual
anosognosis and asomatoagnosia associated with Anton-Babinski syndrome.
Asomatoagnosia is a rare phenomenon where a patient is in denial of a body
part. Anosognosia is a deficit of self-awareness, a condition in which a person
who suffers a certain disability seems unaware of the existence of his or her
disability (33; 34; 66; 67). Anton–Babinski
syndrome is mostly seen following a stroke but may also be seen after head
injury.
Marin-Théodore Tuffier (FR) developed an extradural (epidural)
anesthetic technique (1623).
Jean-Marie-Athanase Sicard (FR) described injecting dilute
solutions of cocaine through the sacral hiatus to treat patients suffering from
severe intractable sciatic pain or lumbago (1500).
Fernand Cathlin (FR) gave sacral injections of cocaine (296; 297).
Fidel Pagés (ES) described a lumbar approach to epidural
anesthesia (1246).
Eugene Aburel (RO) injected chinocaine through a silk ureteral
catheter to block the lumboaortic plexus of laboring women (8).
Archile Mario Dogliotti (IT) performed abdominal surgery with
single-shot lumbar epidural anesthesia (446).
Alessandro Codivilla (IT), in 1898,
performed the first pancreatoduodenectomy. This intervention involves removing
the head of the pancreas, the duodenum, the gallbladder, and often but not
always, part of the stomach (1452).
Walther Carl Eduard Kausch (DE), in
1909, performed the first resection for a periampullary cancer. He described it
in 1912 (889).
Alexandr Petrovich
Karpinsky (RU) recorded his classic work on Paleozoic fossil sharks of the
family Edestidae (880; 881).
Charles Doolittle Walcott (US) described an important clue in the
search for Precambrian life when he discovered fossils in Precambrian
carbon-rich shales on the slopes of a prominent butte deep within the Grand
Canyon. The shales belonged to what is known as the Chuar Group of strata, so,
Walcott named the fossils Chuaria. Chuaria is now known to be an unusually
large, originally spheroidal, single-celled planktonic alga (technically, a
"megasphaeromorph acritarch"). Walcott's specimens were indeed
authentic fossils, the first true cellularly preserved Precambrian organisms
ever recorded (1722).
Károly
Gorjanović-Kramberger (HR), between 1899 and 1905, discovered Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Homo neanderthalensis) fossil remains at
a site near the Krapinica River at Krapina, Croatia. The find consisted of 13
men, women and children. The remains are dated to c. 125 K B.P (691-694).
The first meeting of the Society of American Bacteriologists (SAB)
was held at Yale College, December 28, 1899 with 30 people in attendance. They
declared their intention to promote "the science of bacteriology, the
bringing together of American bacteriologists, and the demonstration of
bacteriological methods." It later became the American Society for
Microbiology (336; 955).
The First International Congress of Genetics was held in London.
c. 1900
"Do not confuse biology and religion—one is a science to be
proved or disproved, the other is a life to be lived." Quintin Hogg (GB) (817)
The first known type-culture collection of microorganisms, the
Kral Collection, was established in Prague, Czechoslovakia.
George Washington Carver (US) carried on a campaign, in the end
successful, to plant peanuts (Arachis
hypogaea) and sweet potatoes (Ipomea
batatas) to return fertility to southern soils depleted by cotton (Gossypium spp.) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). To use the surplus
peanuts and potatoes he developed side-products. From peanuts alone, he
developed some three hundred types of synthetic material, including everything
from dyes and soap to milk and cheese substitutes.
Born a slave, his greatest contribution was the clear
demonstration provided by his life story that it is tremendously worthwhile to
educate individuals of any race.
1900
"That we are in the presence of a new principle of the
highest importance is, I think, manifest. To what further conclusions it may
lead us cannot be foretold." William Bateson (GB) commenting on the work
of Johann Gregor Mendel (112).
"The general problems of embryology, heredity, and evolution
are indissolubly bound up with those of cell structure." Edmund Beecher
Wilson (GB) (1803)
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (DE) determined that energy is not
infinitely subdivisible. Like matter it exists in particles. Planck called the energy particles quanta. He further determined that there is a constant relationship
between the wavelength of a radiation and the size of its quantum (sing.). This constant is symbolized h (Planck’s constant) and is now recognized as one of the
fundamental constants of the universe. This is the quantum theory (1307).
Friedrich Walkoff (DE) and Friedrich Giesel (DE) gave the first
reports in the literature of self-exposure experiments showing radium causing
skin burns (666; 1725).
Albrecht Karl Ludwig Martin Leonard Kossel (DE) and Friedrich
Kutscher (DE) proposed that amino acids themselves and their spatial
arrangement within the protein must become the chemical key to the
understanding of proteins (932).
Richard Martin Willstätter (DE) synthesized the amino acid proline
by oxidizing hygrine and cuscohygrine, alkaloids from Peruvian cusco leaves.
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE) was the first to isolate the amino acid proline from
a protein hydrolysate of casein (578; 1796).
Auguste Fernbach (FR) and Louis Hubert (FR) invented phosphate
buffers for controlling the acidity of a protease from malt and introduced the
term tampon. Sørensen later called
these solutions puffer; they became buffer in English (573).
Allan
Macfayden (GB), George Harris Morris (GB), and Sidney Rowland (GB) estimated
the carbon dioxide evolved in fermentation by passing it through sodium
hydroxide then titrating (1041).
Erich von Tschermak (AT), unaware of Johann Gregor Mendel’s
(Moravian-CZ) earlier work, independently discovered the laws of genetics (1713).
Hugo Marie de Vries (NL), unaware of Johann Gregor Mendel’s
(Moravian-CZ) earlier work, independently discovered the laws of genetics using
garden peas with some of the same characters used by Mendel. Upon discovering
that Mendel had preceded him he published his own work merely as confirmation (412).
Hugo Marie de Vries (NL) introduced the concept of segregation to
genetics. He referred to it as spaltung
(splitting) (413).
Carl Franz Joseph Erich Correns (DE) associated the segregation of
alleles with the reduction division in meiosis (344).
Ernst Franz Moro (AT-DE) isolated Lactobacillus acidophilus from the feces of infants. It is a
natural inhabitant of the infantile intestine and important in the manufacture
of certain sour milk products (1158).
Henry Tissier (FR) isolated Bacillus bifidus communis
(Lactobacillus bifidus) (Bifidobacterium) from the feces of
breast-fed infants (1610).
Henry Tissier (FR) advocated intentional consumption of Bifidobacterium to improve one’s health (1611).
Hugo Schottmüller (DE) used the specificity of bacterial
agglutination reactions to separate the paratyphoid fevers (1453).
Simon Flexner (US) while working in the Philppines isolated a new
and different species of dysentery bacillus now called Shigella flexnerii (600).
Theodor Boveri (DE) based on microscopic observations of cleaving
eggs of sea urchins and the roundworm parasite Ascaris arrived at a unified
theory of centrosome function.
Mary Mallon, a.k.a., Typhoid Mary (GB-US) was an American cook and
immune carrier of typhoid fever who while moving from job to job infected more
than 50 people with the disease between 1900 and 1907. After health officials
found her, she was forced to live in relative seclusion for much of the rest of
her life.
Clement Dukes (GB) distinguished the two disorders rubella (rose rash) and roseola infantum, and concluded that
they were two similar, but etiologically and pathologically distinct,
infections (482).
Per Teodor Cleve (SE) wrote The
Seasonal Distribution of Atlantic Plankton Organisms, a basic text in
oceanography. He proposed that the plankton ocean streams transport can
characterize them and conversely the existence of one type of plankton can
determine the origin of a stream (324).
Andre Mayer (FR) found that serum osmolality is increased during
thirst (1082).
Erich Leschke (DE) found that intravenous injections of hypertonic
saline cause thirst in man (981).
Avery Veryl Wolf (US) was the first to suggest that osmosensitive
centers for thirst are located in the brain (1816).
Peter Arundel Jewell (GB) and Ernest Basil Verney (GB) localized
the osmoreceptor to the anterior hypothalamus (870).
Paul Ehrlich (DE) presented his general theory of immunity, which,
under the name of the side-chain or receptor theory, had for many years an
enormous vogue. In this theory he visualized mammalian cells as possessing
various specific receptors for all sorts of foreign chemical groups. When exposed
to a foreign substance, the substance and its specific receptor would combine
and thus stimulate the cell to produce more of these receptors some of which
would spill into the blood. The combination of the receptor with the foreign
substance would tend to neutralize any harmful effect the foreign substance
might have. In the absence of the foreign substance the blood level of
receptors would slowly drop (517).
Paul Ehrlich
(DE) and Julius Morgenroth (DE) commented in 1900 that the organism
"possesses certain contrivances, by
means of which the immunity reaction, so easily produced
by all kinds of cells, is prevented from acting against the
organism's own elements and so giving rise to autotoxins [...]
so that one might be justified in speaking of a horror autotoxicus" (521) In other words, the body does not normally engage in autoimmune
reactions.
Paul Ehrlich
(DE) and Julius Morgenroth (DE) predicted, "When
the internal regulating contrivances are no longer intact [...]
great dangers arise. In the explanation of many disease-phenomena,
it will in the future be necessary to consider the possible
failure of the internal (i.e., immune)
regulation." (522)
Karl Landsteiner (AT-US) discovered that there are two types of
erythrocyte agglutinins (antibodies) in human sera (anti-alpha and anti-beta)
as well as two kinds of erythrocyte agglutinogens (antigens), A and B, on the
cells. Cells were characterized as either A, B, or C. C was later changed to 0 (954). Note:
Although Landsteiner named the third agglutinogen 0 (zero); by common usage, it
is now called O.
Landsteiner, the previous year, had noted the
anti-fermentation, lytic, and agglutinating effects of blood serums and lymph (953).
Alfred von Decastello (US) and Adriano Sturli (US) discovered that
some erythrocytes possess both A and B agglutinogens, type AB (1672). The A,B,O
blood types were the first known human polymorphism.
Georges Fernand Isidore Widal (FR), Paul Ravaut (FR), and Jean-Marie-Athanase
Sicard (FR) introduced cytodiagnosis, the examination
of the cellular elements suspended in the fluid of any serous cavity, as a tool
to diagnose disease (1778; 1781).
Edwin Stephen Goodrich (GB) proposed that all invertebrate
nephridia (except nephromixia) are homologous and the nephrostome is merely the
opened proximal end of a protonephridium. There are genuine primary coelomic funnels which alone merit the name coelomostome and these connect to the
exterior by genuine coelomic ducts or
coelomoducts. Coelomostome plus
coelomoduct constitute the genital duct
of a coelomic invertebrate (689).
Harvey Williams Cushing (US) and Louis E. Livingood (US)
demonstrated that bacteria of the intestine in the fasting dog are reduced
practically to zero except for a pocket in the cecum (389).
Rudolph Matas (US) was the first to use positive
pressure in thoracic surgery and introduced endotracheal anesthesia much as it is used today (1076).
Ernst Wertheim (AT), in 1898, performed his first radical
abdominal operation for cervical cancer (hysterectomy). For his first
twenty-nine operations he reported a mortality rate of 38 percent. By 1911 he
had reduced the mortality rate to 10 percent and had treated 500 patients (1767; 1769; 1770). See, Wilhelm Alexander Freund, 1878.
Henry Charlton Bastian (GB) believed the muscles provided a
considerable amount of sensory information, which was used by the brain to
coordinate motor acts (108). He later
introduced the phrase kinaesthetic sense
to describe this relationship (109). This gave
way to Sherrington’s new term proprioception (1492).
Charles Scott Sherrington (GB) stated that the cerebellum is head
ganglion of the proprioceptive system, holding that it functions because it
deals with the musculature of the body rather than with individual muscles (1491).
Graham Steell (GB) described the murmur of high-pressure in the
pulmonary artery later called Graham
Steell murmur (1532). The
observation took place in 1888.
Mathieu Jaboulay (FR), in 1900, performed the first vagotomy on a
human. He also reports the first sympathetectomy for the relief of vascular
disease (18; 856).
André Latarjet (FR) and Pierre Wertheimer (FR) were the first to
perform a local vagotomy for therapeutic reasons in the region of the stomach
in man. The surgery was to treat an active peptic ulcer. They suggested, based on these studies, that the vagal nerves play
a significant role in developing peptic ulcer (965).
Lester Reynold Dragstedt (US) and Frederick Mitchum Owens, Jr.
(US) recommended and performed vagotomy with pyloroplasty, for treatment of
duodenal ulcer. This soon became the standard treatment (455).
Fritz Lange (DE) successfully sutured active muscle directly into
the periosteum of a suitable bone. The active muscle therefore acquires a new
attachment to a bone, with which it is not connected in the normal condition.
This surgery, which did not use atrophied tendon, was to overcome a paralyzed
muscle and restore motion (957).
Hermann Johannes Pfannenstiel (DE) perfected the “Pfannenstiel incision”, a type of
abdominal surgical incision that allows access to the abdomen. It is used for
gynecologic and orthopedics surgeries, and it is the most common method for
performing Caesarian sections today. This incision is also used in Stoppa
approach for orthopedics surgeries to treat pelvic fractures. He published his
paper in 1900 when he described 51 cases (1289).
Sigmund Freud (CZ-AT) published Die Traumdeutung (The
Intrerpretation of Dreams) which contains all the basic components of what
became Freudian psychology—dreams are wish fulfillment, displacement,
regression, the Oedipus complex, and the rest. The part of the dream
remembered, is not as important as its latent content, or the symbolic meaning
of the dream (622; 623).
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (RU) was the first to suggest that
learning and memory are associated with the hippocampus portion of the limbic
system in the brain (147). He described
two patients with a significant memory deficit who, on autopsy, were found to
have softening of hippocampal and adjacent cortical tissue.
Brenda Milner (GB-CA) would present experimental evidence to
support Bekhterev (1128).
Dukinfield Henry Scott (GB) wrote two significant books on
paleobotany (1466; 1467).
Albert Charles Seward (GB) and Jane Gowan (GB) found fossil
records indicating that the ginkgo or maidenhair tree, Ginkgo biloba, has existed on Earth since the Liassic (early
Jurassic) period meaning that it has existed on earth longer than any other
tree; 200-176 M (3; 75; 394; 1034; 1481).
Randolph T. Major (US) found that resistance of Ginkgo biloba L. to pests accounts in
part for the longevity of this species (1055).
Thomas Chrowder Chamberlain (US) was the first to suggest a
continental freshwater origin of vertebrates during the Silurian and Devonian
time (303). Currently
most scholars support a marine origin for vertebrates.
1901
"To study the phenomena of disease without books is to sail
an uncharted sea, while to study books without patients is not to go to sea at
all." William Osler (CA-GB) (1227)
Philipp Lenard Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (DE) was awarded the first
Nobel Prize in Physics. It was for his discovery of a new form of penetrating
radiation, which he named x-rays.
Jacobus Hendricus van’t Hoff (NL) was awarded the first Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for formulating the osmotic pressure equation, and the
theory of solutions that connected osmotic pressure, freezing-point depression,
and the lowering of vapor pressure as thermodynamic properties.
Emil Adolf von Behring (DE) was awarded the first Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine "for his
work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by
which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby
placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and
deaths."
Ernst Hermann Riesenfeld (DE) and Walther Hermann Nernst (DE)
discussed the behavior of the potential difference across the phase boundary
between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (1179; 1180; 1363; 1364). The determination
of the free energies of ion transfer between aqueous and organic solutions is
of great importance for biology, physiology, pharmacy, and for liquid-liquid
extraction in chemistry.
Frederick Gowland Hopkins (GB) and Sydney William Cole (GB) were
the first to isolate the amino acid tryptophan. It came from a tryptic digest
of casein (821).
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE)
and Ernest Francois Auguste Fourneau (FR) used amino acid monomers to
synthesize polypeptides (a word
Fischer coined) containing up to eighteen amino acid residues and demonstrated
that digestive enzymes attacked these synthetic bonds just as they did those in
natural polypeptides. Glycylglycine was the first peptide they synthesized (578; 581-583).
Jokichi Takamine (JP-US) and Thomas Bell Aldrich (US)
independently, were the first to crystallize the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline),
an important step on the way to chemical identification. Takamine coined the
name adrenalin (adrenaline) (16; 1571; 1572). This was
the first hormone to be isolated in purified form.
A thousand years earlier the Chinese were using mahuang (rich in ephedrine) with
properties similar to adrenaline (223). The drug
is derived from plants of the genus Ephedra
and is most commonly used to prevent mild or moderate attacks of bronchial
asthma. Unlike epinephrine, ephedrine is slow to take effect and of mild
potency and long duration. It is a bronchodilator and decongestant.
Harriet Isabel Edgeworth (US) described the beneficial effects of
ephedrine in treating myasthenia gravis
(492).
Friedrich Wolfgang Martin Henze (DE) was the first to crystallize
hemocyanin. He obtained it from octopus blood (773).
Marceli Nencki; Marcellus von Nencki (PL) and Jan Zaleski (PL)
found that when phylloporphyrin and hematoporphyrin are reduced the same pyrrol
derivative, which they called hemopyrrol,
was released (1176). The
derivative was identified as methylpropylpyrrol.
Leonor Michaelis (DE-US) established the chemical principles of
staining fat with various oil-soluble dyes (1116).
Count Karl Axel Hampus Mörner (SE) introduced the Nitroprusside
Test, a rather specific test for sulfhydryl groups (1157).
Oscar Loew (US) discovered an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion
of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Catalase
was the name he gave it. The wide distribution of this enzyme in both plant and
animal tissues explained why hydrogen peroxide, known to be toxic, failed to
accumulate in tissues (1012).
Otto Cohnheim; Otto Kestner (DE) showed that the intestinal mucosa
elaborates an enzyme which cleaves peptones to amino acids; he named it erepsin (peptidase). This suggested that dietary proteins are cleaved to
amino acids in the gastrointestinal tract (327-330).
Eugene Wildiers (BE) discovered that yeast require trace amounts
of a growth factor before they will produce alcohol from inorganic salts and
glucose. The growth factor was later found to be a B vitamin (1787).
William Boog Leishman (GB) developed Leishman's stain. It is a compound of methylene
blue and eosin that soon became the standard stain for the detection of such
protozoan parasites as Plasmodium (malaria
parasite) in the blood (976; 977).
Paul Theodor Uhlenhuth (DE) built on the earlier work of Jules
Bordet (BE) and developed the precipitin test, which can show whether a
bloodstain is human or animal in origin (1631-1633). The first
forensic application of his new technique was in the case of two murdered and
dismembered children in the town of Göhren on the Baltic island of Rügen. The
suspect in the case, Ludwig Tessnow claimed that the stains on his clothing
were either cattle's blood or wood stain from a carpentry project. They were
able to prove otherwise.
Hans Horst
Meyer (DE) and Charles Ernest Overton (GB) reported the striking correlation
between the solubility of general anesthetics in olive oil and their ability to
anesthetize/immobilize tadpoles. Because of these observations, it was proposed
that anesthetic agents interfered with the structural and dynamic properties of
the nerve cell membrane and, in so doing, altered the function of the neuron (1111; 1243).
Jean Friedel (FR) brought together the glycerol extract from fresh
leaves with finely powdered leaves which had been rapidly and carefully dried,
and found oxygen was evolved by the action of light, and carbonic acid taken up (628).
Florence Rena Sabin (US) demonstrated that the lymphatics arise from veins by sprouts of
endothelium, and that these sprouts or buds connect with each other as they
grow outwards from the veins toward the periphery, so that the entire system is
derived from already existing vessels. Further, she showed that the peripheral
ends of the lymphatics are closed and that they neither open into the tissue
spaces nor are derived from them (1413-1419).
Thomas Hunt Morgan (US) and Eugene Korschelt (DE) pioneered
studies on regeneration and transplantation in salamanders (930; 1155).
Clarence Erwin McClung (US) theorized that certain chromosomes
whose synaptic mates were different in appearance or entirely absent were
responsible for sex determination, e.g., Hermann Henking's accessory chromosomes. McClung discovered an accessory unpaired chromosome in a grasshopper, which he assumed to
be sex determining although he at first supposed (wrongly) that sperms with the accessory were male determining. This
was the first time that a trait (sex) was assigned to a chromosome. He
suggested that this phenomenon might also be at work in other species (1088; 1089). See, Henking, 1891.
Hugo Marie de Vries (NL) proposed that different alleles of the
same gene arise by a sudden, discontinuous change of that gene—a process to
which he gave the name mutation (L.
to change). This concept arose out of his observations of Oenothera lamarckiana (the evening primrose) (414; 415).
Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (BE) and Octave Gengou (FR)
developed the Complement Fixation Test as follows. If to a quantity of unheated
normal guinea-pig serum is added a quantity of sensitized erythrocytes (i.e.,
erythrocytes charged with specific antibody) hemolysis occurs. They made,
however, the observation that if cholera vibrios are added to such a mixture
they remain intact instead of undergoing spherulation and lysis, as might
perhaps have been expected. The same occurs if the cholera vibrios and
erythrocytes are introduced in the reverse order. On testing heated
plague-serum mixed with plague bacilli and normal serum, Bordet and Gengou
found that the subsequent addition of sensitized erythrocytes did not result in
hemolysis. The explanation they gave was that the sensitizing substance in the
plague-serum fixes the complement in the presence of plague bacilli so that it
is prevented from acting on the sensitized erythrocytes. Other experiments
indicated that the phenomenon was widespread and had applicability as a
diagnostic test. They believed that it was possible to diagnose the existence
of a sensitizer in the serum by the
presence or absence of hemolysis of sensitized erythrocytes. Gengou showed
further that sensitizers (antibodies)
are developed in the blood of animals that have been injected with milk, and
that such sensitizers are also capable of fixing complement. The same reaction
also occurred in the sera of animals injected with egg albumin, fibrinogen, or
other substances (202).
Franz Hofmeister (CZ-DE) made one of the earliest proposals
suggesting that intracellular metabolic reactions follow molecular pathways. "In
the protoplasm synthesis and breakdown occurs by way of a series of
intermediate steps, whereby it is not always the same kind of chemical reaction
that is involved, but rather a series of reactions of different kinds… A
regular reaction sequence of the chemical reactions in the cell presupposes,
however, the separate activity of the individual chemical agents and a definite
direction of movement of the products that are formed, in short, a chemical
organization … that helps to explain the speed and certainty with which it functions." (814)
Martinus Willem Beijerinck (NL) announced that the blue-green
algae (cyanobacteria), the free-living aerobic bacterium Azotobacter, and other microorganisms can use atmospheric nitrogen
as their sole source of nitrogen. He was the discoverer of Azotobacter.
"I shall call oligonitrophilic
microbes those which in free competition with other microbes grow in nutrient
solution where one has not willingly introduced nitrogen-containing substances
but from which one has not removed the last traces of these compounds. They
have the property of fixing free atmospheric nitrogen either alone or in
symbiosis with other microbes." (142)
Newton Barris Pierce (US) described Xanthomonas juglandis as the cause of blight of walnuts (1301).
Martinus Willem Beijerinck (NL) was a master practitioner of what
is referred to as the enrichment culture technique. In one of his early papers he
uses this methodology to isolate a bacterium capable of utilizing urea (141).
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (FR) received several
blood-smears—made by Arnold Theiler (CH-ZA)—from horses suffering with biliary
fever (piroplasmosis). Laveran recognized intra-corpuscular parasites, which he
named Piroplasma equi (Babesia equi) (Theilera equi) (968).
Arnold
Theiler (CH-ZA) showed that the horse sickness called biliary fever
(piroplasmosis) and caused by Piroplasma
equi (Babesia equi) (Theilera equi) is carried by the
red-legged tick Rhipicephalus evertsi (1589; 1590).
Hugo Marie de Vries (NL) wrote Die
Mutationstheorie and thereby advanced the thesis that species are not
continuously connected but arise through sudden large changes (415).
Lucien Claude Jules Cuénot (FR) defined the sexual cycle of the
Gregarina (367).
Theodor Boveri (DE) found that polarity in sea urchin eggs is
associated with qualities of the cytoplasm. When he compared the development of
isolated upper and lower portions of ova, he observed that the isolated upper
portion could not gastrulate, while the lower could do so and could also
differentiate primary mesenchyme. Boveri thought of the lower portion as a
privileged region: "here differentiation began, and from here all other
regions are influenced in their differentiation." (215; 216)
Sarturnin Arloing (FR) and Paul Courmont (FR) developed a test for
agglutinating antibodies in cases of tuberculosis (42).
William Hallock Park (US) championed procedures to reduce
bacterial contamination in every stage of milk production and the introduction
of refrigeration and pasteurization. New York soon had the safest milk supply
in the world (1261). Note: This work led to a
rapid reduction in cases of childhood diphtheria and tuberculosis
in New York.
William Henry Howell (US) demonstrated
the importance of inorganic salts, especially potassium, in regulating heart
rate (832).
Charles
Sedgwick (US) described marrow sinusoids (1132).
Gaston
Milian (FR) was the first to study bleeding time course (1121-1123).
William Waddell Duke (US), in 1910, found that
bleeding time (and the amount of blood shed) was increased in thrombocytopenia
(thereby proving the primary function of blood platelets), he showed that a
whole blood transfusion raised the platelet count, led to a cessation of
clinical bleeding, and shortened the bleeding time to normal (481).
V.O. Sivèn (SE), who weighed 143 pounds, found that he could keep
his body in nitrogen equilibrium by consuming 25 to 31 grams of protein daily.
He ate a liberal amount of carbohydrate, and his diet supplied 2,717 calories
daily (1506).
Russell Henry Chittenden (US) concluded that for man the minimum
"proteid" requirement was 93-103 mg N/kg body wt. (about 0.6-0.64 g
protein·kg1·d), which anticipates, by 80 years, the mean requirement figure of
0.6 g protein·kg1·d1 proposed by FAO/WHO/UNU (317; 318; 567).
Eugene Lindsay Opie (US) stated, “It has been suggested by several
observers that the islands of Langerhans may furnish an internal secretion to
the blood…. Where diabetes is the result of pancreatic disease, do the
islands exhibit lesions? I have examined microscopically the pancreas from
eleven cases of diabetes, and in four instances such marked change was
found [in the islands] that one could not doubt the relationship of the general
disease to the lesion of the organ” (1220). See,
Laguesse, 1893.
Alfred Fröhlich (AT) is remembered for his classic description of dystrophia adiposogenitalis or Fröhlich syndrome (629).
Félix Dévé (FR) investigated echinococcus and presented his thesis
on secondary echinococcus (425).
Leo Loeb (US) described the transplantation of tumors (1009).
Max Wilms (DE) was the first to carry out full excision of burnt
tissue, and sometimes grafted excised areas (1798).
James Horner Wright (US) and Elliott Proctor Joslin (US) published
one of the first articles describing the pathological loss of pancreatic islet
cells in diabetes (1830).
James H. Sequeira (GB) saw in epithelial cells of a cancer treated
by irradiation a “lysis” of both nucleus and protoplasm and a fatty
degeneration (2; 1476; 1477).
Georg Clemens Perthes (DE) was the originator of deep
Röntgen-therapy and a prime mover of the treatment of cancer by irradiation (1283).
Georg Kelling (DE), in 1901, performed the first endoscope-guided laparoscopy
(on a dog) (897). Note: This marks the birth of laparoscopy.
Hans Christian Jacobaeus (SE), in 1910, published an account of
two cases in which he performed thoracoscopic explorations of the pleural
cavities of humans (857). Note: These cases are the beginning of human laparoscopy.
The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research was founded with
Simon Flexner (US) as its first director (1394).
Smallpox had its last major outbreak in the urban Northeast U.S., beginning
in New York and spreading through other major cities (921).
Grafton Elliott Smith (AU-GB), in 1901, discovered the oldest
urological object on record, a bladder calculus, in a prehistoric Egyptian
tomb, in the pelvis of a mummy. The calculus has a uric acid nucleus with
concentric laminations of calcium oxalate and ammonium magnesium phosphate (1377; 1486).
The Journal of Hygiene was
founded.
Biometrika was
founded.
1902
"The sciences are not a series of abstract concepts, but
rather the results of human endeavor; in their development, they are closely
associated with the individual characters and fates of those who dedicate
themselves to it." Hermann Emil Fischer (DE)
"The type of condensation described here through formation of
—CO—NH—CH= groups may thus explain both the building up of protein substances
in the organism, as well as their breakdown in the intestinal tract and in the
tissues. Based on these given facts one may therefore consider the proteins as
for the most part arising by condensation of alpha-amino acids, whereby the
linkage through the group —CO—NH—CH= has to be regarded as the regularly
recurring one." Franz Hofmeister (815).
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
for his discoveries related to sugars and purine syntheses.
Ronald Ross (GB) was the recipient of the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine "for his work on malaria, by which he had shown how
it enters the organism and thereby laid the foundation for successful research
on this disease and methods of combating it."
Ernest Rutherford (NZ-GB) and Frederick Soddy (GB) proposed that a
process of exponential radioactive decay with the emission of material
particles transforms radioactive elements into each other (1406; 1407).
Ernest Rutherford (NZ-GB) was, along with Pierre Currie (FR) and
Marie Skodowska Curie (PL-FR), the first to decide that rays given off by
radioactive material were of several different kinds. Rutherford named the
positively charged ones alpha rays
and the negatively charged ones beta rays.
He was able to demonstrate that the radiations discovered in 1900 and found not
to be sensitive to a magnetic field, consisted of electromagnetic waves. He
named these gamma rays (1405).
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (GB) introduced the concept of the
electron (1597).
Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm Siedentopf (DE) and Richard Adolf
Zsigmondy (AT-DE) developed the slit ultramicroscope, a dark field microscope
that can detect particles with diameters below the wavelength of visible light.
This was possible because of the Tyndall effect (1501).
Eugen Baumann (DE) discovered cysteine as a product of the reduction
of cystine (121).
Carl Alexander Neuberg (DE-US) discovered cysteine (1183).
The United
States Congress authorized the extermination and removal of water hyacinths by
any mechanical, chemical, or other means. Various materials were tested
including muriatic acid, sulfuric acid, carbolic acid, kerosene, steam, sodium
arsenite, mercury bichloride, whale oil soap, formaldehyde, copper sulfate,
potassium bichromate, and many others. Although there were no laws to regulate
the use of pesticides, it was quickly learned that most of the chemicals, which
were effective against water hyacinth, were also toxic to cattle and humans.
During 1944
to 1946, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Jacksonville District Corps of
Engineers, and the Everglades Experiment Station of the University of Florida
initiated evaluations of a newly discovered herbicide, 2,4-D, as a control
agent for water hyacinth. The herbicide 2,4-D proved extremely effective and
economical, and above all was not toxic to fish, cattle, or humans.
Warren Thompson Clarke (US) perfected the lime-sulfur spray for
the control of the peach twig borer (323).
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE) isolated the amino acid hydroxyproline
from gelatin hydrolysate (579). He called
it oxyproline.
Hermann Emil Fischer (DE) and Franz Hofmeister (CZ-DE)
independently described the peptide bond by which amino acids join to form
polypeptides (580; 815). Fischer
outlined a procedure for recovery of the amino acids following hydrolysis. The
phrase, peptide bond, coined by
Fischer, is derived from pepsin,
which is derived from the Greek root pepsis
meaning cooked/digestion.
Max Rubner (DE) published what is called the isodynamic law of Rubner. It states that 100 calories in fat are
the nutritive equivalent of the same number in carbohydrate. He further
compared the caloric content of foods of different classes when given to an
animal in moderate quantities. He found that the caloric content of 100 grams
of fat is equivalent to 211 grams of protein, or 232 grams of starch, or 234
grams of cane sugar, or 256 grams of glucose. He found that when a dog was fed
100 calories in the form of meat his caloric output increased by 30 calories
over that of a dog at rest and without food. When 100 calories were given as
cane sugar the increase in caloric output was only 5.8 calories and when 100
calories as fat were given the increase was 4 calories. Any increase in the
ingestion of protein led to a commensurate increase in caloric output by the
dog. Rubner named this phenomenon specific
dynamic action (1397).
Adolf Magnus-Levy (DE) was one of the first to suggest that
acetylaldehyde is an intermediate product in various fermentations of sugar (1054).
Adrian J. Brown (GB) and Victor Henri (FR) separately discovered
that the rate of hydrolysis of cane sugar by saccharase is independent of the sugar concentration over a wide
range, although it depends on the enzyme concentration. Brown for the first
time deduced the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex from careful rate
measurements that indicated the initial rate of cane-sugar hydrolysis, except
for very dilute solutions, to be independent of the concentration of the cane
sugar used. He concluded that mass action is concealed in the case of this
substrate-independent rate by a time course factor associated with molecular
combination. Henri derived a hyperbolic rate equation for a single-substrate
enzymatic reaction and showed that his rate equation predicted the catalytic
rate to be proportional to the substrate concentration at low, and independent
of it at high substrate concentrations (243; 244; 771).
Leonor Michaelis (DE-US) and Maud Leonora Menten (CA) would later
revive and extend this as the Henri-Michaelis-Menten
theory. See Michaelis and Menten,
1913.
George Potts (DE) was the first to postulate that cellular slime
molds use chemotaxis (1319).
Ernest H. Runyon (US) found in Dictyostelium that separate cells aggregate to form a
multicellular body (1402).
Kenneth Bryan Raper (US) observed a pseudoplasmodium formation and
organization in Dictyostelium
discoideum (1340).
John Tyler Bonner (US) and Leonard Jimmie Savage (US) presented
evidence that the amoebae of cellular slime molds first undergo growth as
separate cells and then aggregate to form cell masses that become
differentiated multicellular organisms. This paper gave evidence that
aggregation occurred by chemotaxis, and the chemical attractant was given the
name acrasin (196).
Charles Ernest Overton (GB) found that extracellular sodium ions
are required for nerve excitability and suggested that a sodium-potassium
exchange is involved in signal conductance (1244).
Rudolf Magnus
(NL) and E.A. Shäfer (NL) reported that pituitary extracts cause expansion of
the kidney and a marked and often prolonged diuresis. This was the first
indication that the hypophysis (pituitary gland) plays a part in the regulation
of urine secretion (1052).
Gottlieb Friedrich Johann Haberlandt (AT) expressed the concept of
the vegetable cellular totipotency and was probably the first to grow plant
cells in tissue culture. He succeeded in getting a small cellular mass to
survive in vitro some months, but
without reproduction (722).
"There has been, so far as I know, up to present, no planned
attempt to cultivate the vegetative cells of higher plants in suitable
nutrients. Yet the results of such attempts should cast many interesting
sidelights on the peculiarities and capacities, which the cell, as an
elementary organism, possesses: they should make possible conclusions as to the
interrelations and reciprocal influences to which the cell is subjected within
the multicellular organism. Without permitting myself to pose further
questions, I believe, in conclusion, that I am not making to bold a prediction
if I point to the possibility that, in this way, one could successfully
cultivate artificial embryos from vegetative cells" (722).
William Bateson (GB) although not considered to be one of the
“official” rediscovers of Mendel’s work was the first English-speaking
scientist to recognize the importance of Mendel’s work and he immediately set
out to bring Mendel’s work to the attention of the scientific community. This
1928 publication contains his application, in 1902, to the Trustees of the
Carnegie Institution in Washington seeking financial support (£600 a year) to
support his use of Mendelian methods in investigating the mechanism of heredity
(116). The proposal was declined.
Aladar Aujeszky (HU) first described and reproduced the disease now
called pseudorabies or Aujeszky's disease that is found in a wide range of domestic
stock and wild animals (56). Note: It is called pseudorabies
because of some clinical resemblance to rabies. The the first herpesvirus and
now named Herpes suis or porcine herpesvirus type 1.
Richard Edwin Shope (US) found that mad-itch is the same disease
as pseudorabies (1496).
Robert Chodat (CH) discovered the cause of the vine disease known
as court noué and showed that it is
caused by an acarid (mite); from then on it was called acariasis (319).
Fred Neufeld (DE) described the Quellung phenomenon, which
consists of apparent capsular swelling when pneumococci are mixed with
undiluted antiserum to the capsular polysaccharide (1184).
Fred Neufeld (DE) and Georg Willi Rimpau (DE) reported that the
blood of animals immunized with pneumococci contained substances that greatly
accelerated phagocytosis of the immunizing strain (1186).
Fred Neufeld (DE) and R. Etinger-Tulczynska (IL) applied the
Quellung reaction to practical diagnosis (1185).
Karl Wilhelm von Drigalski (DE) and Heinrich Conradi (DE) found
that some bacteria such as Salmonella
typhosa exhibit resistance to certain aniline dyes. They recommended the
use of crystal violet for the isolation of organisms from feces and other
contaminated material (1675).
José Léon Marcel Lignières (FR) and Georges Spitz (AR) isolated a
non-motile, non-branching, non-acid-fast gram-negative bacillus from the
lesions of a disease of cattle resembling actinomycosis,
with which it is frequently confused. The causative organism was named Actinobacillus lignieresii and the disease actinobacillosis (990).
Paul Ravaut (FR) and Pierre-Ernest Pinoy (FR) reported the first
incidence of actinobacillosis in man (1341).
Richard May (DE) and Ludwig Grünwald (DE) developed a stain for
peripheral blood film and bone marrow (1081). Now
popularly called the May-Grünwald stain.
Gustav Giemsa (DE) and James Homer Wright (US) introduced their
respective stains formulated to demonstrate human blood elements and the
malarial parasite (664; 665; 1829).
Andre Huot (FR) discovered that some fish (lophobranchs) have
aglomerular kidneys, proving that renal tubules can secrete and resorb
substances (838).
William Maddock Bayliss (GB) reported on the local reactions of
the arterial wall to changes of internal pressure. He suggested that distension
of the vessel by the blood pressure could act as a mechanical stimulus to the
muscle cells, thereby contributing to their tone (123).
William Maddock Bayliss (GB) and Ernest Henry Starling (GB)
discovered that the lining of the upper small intestine, upon exposure to
acidic food, stimulates the flow of bile from the gall bladder and the release
of digestive enzymes and bicarbonate from the pancreas even when all the nerves
between the small intestine and the pancreas are severed. They promptly made a
crude extract from a piece of duodenum, injected it into the jugular vein of
the dog, and within a few moments had the pleasure of seeing the pancreas
respond with a heavy secretion. They postulated the existence of secretin, a blood-borne messenger, or hormone that is released into the
circulation by the lining of the duodenum (125; 126).
William Bate Hardy (GB) is credited with coining the word hormone
(Gk. hormao, to excite or arouse to
action) while visiting in the laboratory of Bayliss and Starling (1531).
Otto Loewi (DE-US) demonstrated that protein digested outside the
body to the point that it would not give a positive Biuret Test could be fed to
an animal and substitute for all its food protein. This suggested that dietary proteins
are cleaved to amino acids in the gastrointestinal tract, taken into the blood,
and later oxidized or used to synthesize new proteins (1013).
Theodor Boveri (DE) proved the hypothesis that the physical basis
of inheritance resides in the chromosomes by creating sea urchin embryos with
abnormal chromosome sets. He also determined that every cell in the sea urchin
embryo must have the normal set of 36 chromosomes if development is to be
normal. In the 1902 article he gave his views on the importance of interaction
between nucleus and cytoplasm as, “It appears to me that the quite peculiar
interaction of the cytoplasm with its simple structure and differential
division and the nucleus with its complex structure and manifold total
multiplication may still achieve what Weismann and Roux attempted to explain
with the help of differential nuclear division. When the primitive differences
of the cytoplasm, as expressed in the existence of layers, are transferred to
the cleaved egg without any change in the relationships of the layers, they
affect the originally equal nuclei unequally by unfolding (activating) or
suppressing certain nuclear qualities, as may be visualized directly in the
cleavage of Ascaris. The inequalities
of the nuclei, in some cases perhaps of temporary nature only, lend different
potencies to the cytoplasm that to begin with was differentiated only by
degrees. Thus, new cytoplasmic conditions are created which again release in
certain nuclei the activation or suppression of certain qualities thus
imprinting on these cells in turn a specific character and so on, and so on. In
short: a continually increasing specification of the originally totipotent
complex nuclear structure, and consequently, indirectly, of the cytoplasm of
the individual cells, appears conceivable based on physico-chemical events once
the machine has been set in motion by the simple cytoplasmic differentiation of
the egg. In this same article, he speculated that multipolar mitosis might
cause tumors and that mitotic aberrations might be caused by physical and
chemical agents.” The 1904a paper states that chromatin is the substance that
transforms into chromosomes during mitosis (217; 219; 221; 1793).
William Bateson (GB) showed the validity of Johann Gregor Mendel’s
(Moravian-CZ) principle of segregation in animals (poultry) (113; 1323).
Archibald Edward Garrod (GB) provided the first evidence of the
applicability of Mendelian genetics to man and perceived the relationship of
hereditary factors to enzymes. He noted that several human hereditary traits (alkaptonuria, albinism, pentosuria, and
cystinuria) were metabolic diseases
characterized by failure of known chemical reactions to take place and
hypothesized that such metabolic diseases, which he called inborn errors of metabolism, were due to the absence of specific
enzymes that were synthesized under the direction of the wild-type genes.
“Inborn errors of metabolism are due to the failure of a step in the metabolic
sequence due to loss or malfunction of an enzyme.” Garrod’s deduction is one of
the most outstanding in the history of biology—he discovered the function of
genes (647-650). Garrod
consulted Bateson, who in 1902 suggested that for alkaptonuria the available data could be understood if one assumed
that alkaptonuria is caused by a
recessive gene. This was the first Mendelian recessive discovered in man.
William Bateson (GB) and Edith Rebecca Saunders (GB) provided us
with some of the basic terminology for Mendelian genetics: unit characters
which exist in antagonistic pairs they called allelomorphs (later shortened to alleles), the zygote formed by the union of a pair of opposite
allelomorphic gametes they called heterozygote,
and the zygote formed by the union of a pair of gametes having similar
allelomorphs they called homozygote.
They introduced the use of F1, F2, and so on to designate filial generations (113; 117).
William Bateson (GB) introduced the term epistasis (the masking effect of one mutant
gene pair over another mutant gene pair) into genetics. Here he presented
evidence that man exhibits Mendelian inheritance (114; 115).
Lucien Claude Jules Cuénot (FR), William Ernest Castle (US) and
Clarence Cook Little (US) showed that coat color in mice follows Mendelian
segregation and behaves as though it has at least three alleles (multi-allelic) (295; 368-373; 1000). These
experiments along with Bateson’s on poultry represent the first extension of
Mendel’s laws to animals. See
Bateson, 1901.
Carl Franz Joseph Erich Correns (DE) discovered the first
exception to the random union of gametes assumed by Mendel. It was explained as
the effects of a gene on the functioning of pollen grains in maize (345).
Paul Portier (FR), Charles Robert Richet (FR), and Georges Richard
(FR) discovered the remarkable fact that certain poisons of animal origin evoke
a condition of hypersusceptibility instead of immunity, and that because of
this hypersusceptibility death may ensue from a dose of the poison which is
otherwise ineffective. By maceration of the tentacles of certain sea anemones (Actinia eqnina, Anemone sulcata) they
obtained a poisonous fluid which, injected intravenously into dogs in a dose of
0.2 gm. per kilo, produced hypothermia, diarrhea, and death in two or three
days, doses smaller than 0.2 gm. produced only transient symptoms. If, however,
several weeks after the injection of such a dose a second sub-lethal dose was
administered, violent symptoms of poisoning set in and were sometimes followed
by death of the animal in an hour but mostly in 12 to 24 hours. Richet coined
the word anaphylaxis (Greek, removal
of protection) to describe this reaction. It was intended to convey the idea of
the opposite of prophylaxis (Greek, favoring protection) (1314; 1360-1362).
Milton Joseph Rosenau (US) and John F. Anderson (US) noted that
animals receiving an injection of a foreign protein became sensitive to a
second dose of the same protein (1376).
James MacKenzie (GB) began a systematic study of cardiac patients
in 1883, devised a polygraph to study irregularities of the pulse, and wrote, The Study of the Pulse, followed by Diseases of the Heart. He classified
irregularities of the pulse as the youthful
type (sinus irregularity), the adult
type (extra-systole), and the dangerous
type (auricular fibrillation) (1044; 1045).
Julius Strasburger (DE) estimated the daily output of fecal
microorganisms by humans to be eight grams (1559).
George Frederic Still (GB), England’s first professor of childhood
medicine, described attention-deficit
disorder (ADD) (1551).
Charles E. Gray (ZW) and William Robertson (ZW) recorded East Coast Fever in Africa (701). East Coast
fever (ECF) is the most important tick-borne disease in Eastern, Central and
Southern Africa.
Arnold
Theiler (CH-ZA) proved that East African Coast Fever is caused by Piroplasma parva (Theileria parva) (1588).
Richard
Gonder (ZA) identified the apicomplexan
parasite Theileria
parva as the cause of East Coast fever in South Africa (688).
Emil von Dungern (DE) was the first to give evidence for local
antibody production in the antigenically stimulated eye (1676).
Max
Bielschowsky (DE) developed several stains that are still commonly used in
diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease (171; 172).
Arthur Biedl
(AT) and Josef Wiesel (AT) proved that the paraganglion aorticum in the cardiac
plexus contained adrenaline (170).
Harvey Williams Cushing (US), Karl Hugo Kronecker (CH), and Emil
Theodor Kocher (CH) demonstrated that as the spinal fluid pressure of a dog is
increased, there is initially a vagal effect with bradycardia followed by a
high rise in arterial blood pressure (385; 386).
John William Ballantyne (GB) wrote Manual of Antenatal Pathology and Hygiene, the most complete
history of teratology in English (80).
Gregorij Ivanovitsch Rossolimo (RU) described percussion
of the plantar surface of the 2nd to 5th toes causing a flexion, which is
exaggerated greatly in pyramidal tract lesions (1379).
William Richard Gowers (GB) was the first to describe a muscular
disorder later called distal myopathy of
Gowers (696).
Paul Schuster (DE), based on 785 cerebral tumor cases, divided the
psychical changes seen in these patients into categories. He wrote that the
most frequent symptoms were general “mental paralyzation,” irritability,
hypomania, and Witzelsucht (sarcastic
joking). In agreement with other authors of the day, he acknowledged that
unilateral pre-frontal cortex damage was not always associated with these
mental and emotional symptoms. Yet he added that when symptoms were seen with
unilateral tumors left frontal damage had more of an effect on intellect,
whereas right frontal damage had more of an effect on emotion and temperament (1461).
Alexis Carrel (FR-US) and Charles
Claude Guthrie (US) using fine silk suture and
meticulous technique successfully created a variety of vascular anastomoses and
reconstructions, including the first-ever vein grafts, termed “biterminal
venous transplantation.” Their perfected
triangulation technique whereby blood vessels could be delicately sutured; that
is, sewn together end to end with as few as three stitches enabled them to
transplant limbs and organs, including the kidney, thyroid, adrenal, ovary,
spleen, intestine, pancreas, and heart from one animal to another (286-291; 338). Note: Themistocles Gluck (DE), in the
1880s, carried out not only the suture of vessels, but also venous
grafts, long before the work of Alexis Carrel.
Attila E. Pólya
(SK-DE) and Desider von Navratil (SK-DE) described lymphatic drainage of buccal
mucosa, alveolus, fauces, and lips. In addition, they discussed patterns of
local tumor spread and metastasis to lymph nodes, on the basis of which they
gave a rational plan for surgical treatment of buccal carcinoma with the aim of
both cure and conservation of uninvolved tissues (1312).
Ludwik
Rydygier; Ludwig Anton Rydygier von Ruediger (PL-DE), in 1897, modified the
procedure of prostatic adenoma removal. The method consisted of making a median
incision, from the scrotum as far as the anus, and intracapsular removal of the
adenoma while preserving two bands of gland tissue to ensure continuity of the
urethra. He called this type of operation resectio prostatae intracapsularis
(1411).
Hugh Hampton Young (US) devised and performed
the first perineal prostatectomy, in 1902 (1844). He performed the
first radical perineal prostatectomy for cancer of the prostate in 1904, with
assistance from his chief, William Stewart Halsted (1845; 1847). Through this technique,
obstruction to the outlet of the urinary bladder caused by cancer of the
prostate gland is relieved without interfering with the normal function of the
bladder. Young invented numerous operating instruments such as the Young punch,
an instrument used to excise the prostate (1846).
Jean Nageotte (FR) worked with tabes
and made special studies of the radial nerves in tabetus. Together with Joseph Jules Francoise Felix Babinski
(PL-FR) he described the Babinski-Nageotte
syndrome (71) and wrote a
book on cerebrospinal fluid. He made intensive study on nerve fibers, anatomic
and degenerative in nature. He did considerable clinical and chemical research
on the myelin sheath and connective tissue.
Harris Hawthorne Wilder (US) pioneered comprehensive studies of
the methodology, inheritance, and racial variation of palmer and planter
papillary ridge patterns as well as fingerprints. These represented the first
serious study of palmer and plantar dermatoglyphics (1785; 1786).
Henry Fairfield Osborn (US) enunciated the concept of adaptive radiation in evolution (1223).
Petr Alekseevich Kropotkin (RU) published Mutual Aid a Factor of Evolution, an important landmark in the
future trend of population studies (leading to the widely spread
anthropomorphic concept of "altruism")
(940).
Charles William Andrews (GB) and Hugh John Llewellyn Beadnell
(GB), in 1900, discovered numerous early higher primate fossils in the Fayum
Depression region east of Cairo, Egypt. These Eocene and Oligocene fossils
include protomonkeys believed to be ancestral to Old World monkeys and thus in
the lineage to hominids. Aegyptopithecus is the best known of the
propliopithecids from the Fayum, about the size of a cat. Aegyptopithecus
is often placed at the base of the Catarrhine radiation (25-27; 127).
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