A Selected Chronological Bibliography of Biology and Medicine

 

 Part 1A

 

c. 13.75 G — 1636

 

 

Compiled by James Southworth Steen, Ph.D.

Delta State University

 

Dedicated to my loving family

 

This document celebrates those secondary authors and laboratory technicians without whom most of this great labor of discovery would have proved impossible.

 

Please forward any editorial comments to: James S. Steen, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, jsteen08@bellsouth.net










 

Prologue

 

“Reason was born, as it has since now discovered, into a world already wonderfully organized, in which it found its precursor in what is called life, its seat in an animal body of unusual plasticity, and its function in rendering that body’s volatile instincts and sensations harmonious with one another and with the outer world on which they depend.” George Santayana (1185).

 

“In all human affairs … there is a single dominant factor—time. To make sense of the present state of science, we need to know how it got like that: we cannot avoid an historical account…To extrapolate into the future we must look backwards a little into the past.” John M. Ziman (1501).

 

 "The proper concern of natural science is not what God could do if he wished, but what he has done; that is, what happens in the world according to the inherent causes of nature." Albertus Magnus; Alberti Magni; Albert of Cologne; Albert the Great (606; 1167).

 

"Admitting that vital phenomena rest upon physico-chemical activities, which is the truth, the essence of the problem is not thereby cleared up; for it is no chance encounter of physico-chemical phenomena which constructs each being according to a pre-existing plan, and produces the admirable subordination and the harmonious concert of organic activity.

There is an arrangement in the living being, a kind of regulated activity, which must never be neglected, because it is in truth the most striking characteristic of living beings. . . .

Vital phenomena possess indeed their rigorously determined physico-chemical conditions, but, at the same time, they subordinate themselves and succeed one another in a pattern and according to a law which pre-exists; they repeat themselves with order, regularity, constancy, and they harmonize in such manner as to bring about the organization and growth of the individual, animal or plant.

It is as if there existed a pre-established design of each organism and of each organ such that, though considered separately, each physiological process is dependent upon the general forces of nature, yet taken in relation with the other physiological processes, it reveals a special bond and seems directed by some invisible guide in the path which it follows and toward the position which it occupies.

The simplest reflection reveals a primary quality, a quid proprium of the living being, in this pre-established organic harmony.” Claude Bernard (174).

 

Contents

 

c. 13.75 G (giga-annum = billion years)

Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaitre (BE) proposed that the universe began as a primal atom, an incredibly dense egg containing all the material for the universe within a sphere about 30 times larger than our Sun. This primal atom rapidly expanded for c. 10-20 G scattering matter and energy in all directions (354; 795; 850; 851). This theory is now known popularly as the Big Bang Theory, a phrase coined by Fred Hoyle (GB) in a moment of facetiousness, during a radio broadcast (710).

Alexander Friedmann (RU) proposed an expanding universe as early as 1922 (150). Note: Today, most physicists and cosmologists conceive of the primal atom as having been smaller than Lemaitre's!

 

On February 12, 2003, Charles L. Bennett (US) and a team from the National Aeronautics and Space administration (NASA) and the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland announced that the age of the universe is 13.7 G with a one percent margin for error (290; 359).

 

Eleanor Margaret Burbidge (US), Geoffrey R. Burbidge (US), William A. Fowler (US), and Fred Hoyle (GB) suggested that the heavier elements are formed in supernova explosions (259).

Lawrence Hugh Aller (US) concluded that nucleosyntheses in stellar interiors generates carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and other biogenic elements (50).

 

c. 5 G

Anaxagoras of Clazomene (GR), in c. 460 B.C.E., was the first to teach that all heavenly bodies were brought into existence by the same processes that formed the earth and that all these objects are made of the same materials (61).

 

René Descartes (FR), in 1644, proposed the Nebular Hypothesis. It states that the solar system formed because, "God sent adrift a number of ‘vortices’ of swirling gas, and these eventually made the stars, which later changed themselves into comets, which in turn still later formed themselves into planets" (441).

 

Thomas Chowder Chamberlin (US) and Forest Ray Moulton (US) developed the Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis to explain the origin of the Earth and other planetary bodies. In contrast to the nebular-gas-cloud theory this theory held that Earth formed by accretion of small, cold bodies (dust and asteroids) (296; 984).

 

David J. Stevenson (US), Takafumi Matsui (JP), and Yutaka Abe (JP) reasoned that the Earth with its metallic core, highly convective mantle, molten surface, and massive steam atmosphere, formed as a direct result of accretion (13; 937; 1299).

Immanuel Kant (DE) had proposed much earlier that the Earth formed by condensation (759; 760).

 

Kevin J. Zahnle (US), James F. Kasting (US), and James B. Pollack (US) modeled the evolution of an impact-generated steam atmosphere surrounding an accreting Earth (1495).

 

c. 4.55 G

Clair Cameron Patterson (US), George Tilton (US), and Mark Ingham (US) used uranium decay in rocks from Earth and in meteorites that struck Earth to date our solar system at 4.55 G (1065-1067).

 

c. 4.4-3.9 G

Samuel A. Bowring (US) and Ian S. Williams (US) identified the oldest rocks found on Earth as granite-like rocks called gneiss from the Acasta Gneiss Complex near Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territory, Canada. Their age was determined to be 4.03 G. The Isua Supracrustal rocks in West Greenland are a close second at 3.7 to 3.8 G. These rocks were dated using the uranium 235 to lead 207 method (214).

 

Alessandro Morbidelli (IT), John Chambers (US), Jonathan I. Lunine (US), Jean-Marc Petit (IT), Francois Robert (FR), Giovanni B. Valsecchi (IT), and Kim E. Cyr (US) proposed that as the solar system formed, Jupiter's powerful gravity perturbed asteroids to accrete into larger and larger objects resulting in terrestrial "embryos" near the size of Mars. These "embryos were tossed into very unstable elliptical orbits with the result that some collided with Earth thereby delivering the water that now fills Earth's oceans. These events occurred when Earth was about half its present size (973).

 

Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (RU) postulated that a long chemical evolution in the oceans preceded the appearance of life on Earth (1015-1017).

John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (GB-IN), Harold Clayton Urey (US) and John Desmond Bernal (GB) also forwarded the same hypothesis (172; 625; 1369). This is often called the heterotroph hypothesis of the origin of life.

 

Preston Ercelle Cloud, Jr. (US) and Stanley Lloyd Miller (US) made the argument that the Earth’s primitive atmosphere was virtually devoid of oxygen (323; 964).

 

Kenneth M. Towe (US) made a compelling case that the Earth’s early atmosphere contained significant quantities of oxygen (1359).

 

John Desmond Bernal (GB), Peter C. Sylvester-Bradley (GB), S. Ichtiaque Rasool (US), Donald M. Hunten (US), William M. Kaula (US), Egon T. Degens (DE), Kenneth M. Towe (US), Edward Anders (US), Gustaf Olaf Arrhenius (SE-US), Bibhas Ranjan De (US), Hannes Olof Gosta Alfvén (SE-US), Anne Benlow (GB), Arthur Jack Meadows (GB), Manfred A. Lange (DE), and Thomas J. Ahrens (US) proposed that on the primitive Earth, impact accretions from extraterrestrial objects represented a significant source of atmospheric and biogenic elements (62; 92; 162; 173; 434; 820; 1123; 1317; 1358).

 

James F. Kasting (US), James B. Pollack (US), and David Crisp (US) concluded that to keep the oceans from freezing on the primitive Earth a global "greenhouse" was necessary. This "greenhouse" would have offset the effects of a faint young Sun which was dimmer than today's by 25-30%. Climate models confirm that 100-1,000 times the present atmospheric level of carbon dioxide would have been necessary to produce the ancient "greenhouse" effect (767).

 

Arvid Gustaf Högbom (SE) suggested that Earth's primitive atmosphere resulted from gradual, episodic, or rapid volcanic out-gassing and weathering (688).

Steffen L. Thomsen (DE), Claude J. Allègre (FR), Thomas Staudacher (FR), and Philippe Sarda (FR) determined that early catastrophic out-gassing occurred on the young Earth (49; 1349). Note: This would have released significant amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, water, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.

 

James C.G. Walker (US) and Peter Brimblecombe (GB) found that abundant aqueous ferrous iron occurring in an oceanic hydrothermal system resulted in the precipitation of otherwise highly insoluble iron sulfides. This suggests that on the primitive Earth such a system would have served as a highly effective sink for hydrogen sulfide (1423).

 

Bernard J. Wood (GB) and David Virgo (US) presented evidence that Earth's primitive atmosphere was poised at a redox state buffered close to the fayalite-quartz-magnetite system, which is consistent with a neutral redox atmosphere and characteristic of basalts throughout the geological record (1480).

 

James F. Kasting (US), Donald R. Lowe (US), and John P. Grotzinger (US) used greenhouse calculations and the sedimentary record to suggest that prior to 3.8 G the Earth’s surface was a warm (80-100˚C), with a bicarbonate-rich ocean at a pH perhaps as low as 6 (613; 767; 878).

 

Juan Oró (ES-US), Aubrey P. Kimball (US), Richard Reed Fritz (US), and Fenil Master (US) synthesized amino acids from formaldehyde and hydroxylamine under primitive Earth conditions (1022).

 

Juan Oró (US), E. Stephen-Sherwood (US), and Aubrey P. Kimball (US) synthesized adenine, thymine, amino acids, and other biochemical compounds from HCN in a primitive Earth environment (1020; 1021; 1296).

 

David W. Deamer (US) and Richard M. Pashley (AU) found membrane-forming non-polar molecules within the Murchison carbonaceous chondritic meteorite (432).

 

Keith A. Kvenvolden (US), James G. Lawless (US), Katherine Pering (US), Etta Peterson (US), Jose Flores (US), Cyril Ponnamperuma (LK-US), Isaac R. Kaplan (US), Carleton Moore (US) and John R. Cronin (US) examined the Murchison carbonaceous chondritic meteorite and found racemic mixtures of 74 different amino acids: Eight that are present in proteins, eleven with other biological roles (including, quite surprisingly, some neurotransmitters), and fifty-five that have been found almost exclusively in extraterrestrial samples (365; 810; 811).

 

Joan Oró (US), E. Stephen-Sherwood (US), Joseph Eichberg (US), and Dennis E. Epps (US) reported the synthesis of phospholipids under primitive Earth conditions (1023).

 

Joseph P. Pinto (US), G. Randall Gladstone (US), Yuk Ling Yung (US), Akiva Bar-Nun (IL), Sherwood Chang (US), and James F. Kasting (US) showed that photochemistry in an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide yielded formaldehyde as a major product (123; 766; 1081).

 

Stanley Lloyd Miller (US), in Harold Clayton Urey’s (US) laboratory, showed that a wet mixture of methane, hydrogen, and ammonia exposed to electrical discharge for a while, formed traces of organic compounds, including organic acids and amino-acids regarded as exclusive components of living things (963).

 

William S. Brinigar (US), David B. Knaff (US), and Jui H. Wang (US) mixed a porphyrin, AMP, and inorganic phosphate with an imidazole group as a catalyst. Exposure of the mixture to ultraviolet or visible light resulted in the direct synthesis of ATP (229).

 

Christopher Reid (GB), Leslie Eleazer Orgel (GB-US), and Cyril Ponnamperuma (LK-US) have shown that random processes can form nucleotides and dinucleotides. They have also demonstrated the formation of ATP through the ultimate agency of solar energy (1137).

 

William R. Hargreaves (US), Sean J. Mulvihill (US), and David W. Deamer (US) found that fatty acids and glycerol combine spontaneously to produce phospholipids when heated to dryness at 65°C, as they might have been in an evaporating tide pool along a primitive sea (634).

 

John Desmond Bernal (GB) proposed that one way in which organic subunits may spontaneously combine into larger molecules is by adsorption of the reacting molecules onto the highly ordered negatively charged aluminosilicates of clays. The clay surface performs a catalytic function (171; 172).

Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith (GB), P. Ingram (GB), and Gregory L. Walker (GB) also proposed that under primitive Earth conditions organic polymers could have condensed on extremely thin layers of negatively charged aluminosilicates separated by layers of water (263).

 

Sidney Walter Fox (US), Kaoru Harada (JP), and Allen Vegotsky (US) showed how amino acids can be heated under Earth conditions to form proteinoids or "thermal proteins," which when placed in water self-organize into microspheres or protocells, possible precursors of the contemporary living cell (533-536).

 

Noam Lahav (IL), David White (US), and Sherwood Chang (US) experimentally produced peptide bonds under conditions where clay, water, and amino acids were subjected to cyclic variations in temperature and water content (814).

 

James R. Hawker, Jr. (US) and Juan Oró (US) synthesized peptides under plausible primitive Earth conditions (646).

 

E. Stephen-Sherwood (US), A. Joshi (US), and Juan Oró (US) produced polynucleotide polymers under primitive Earth conditions (1295).

 

A. Mar (US), Jason P. Dworkin (US) and Juan Oró (US) synthesized uridine diphosphate glucose, cytidine diphosphate choline, other phosphorylated metabolic intermediates, the coenzymes adenosine diphosphate glucose (adPG), guanosine diphosphate glucose (GDPG), and cytidine diphosphoethanolamine (CDP-ethanolamine) under primitive Earth conditions (914; 915).

 

Carl R. Woese (US), Francis Harry Compton Crick (GB), and Leslie Eleazer Orgel (GB-US) suggested that it would have been possible in a pre-DNA world to have a primitive replicating and catalytic apparatus devoid of both DNA and proteins and based solely on RNA molecules, i.e., an RNA world (362; 1018; 1474).

Jennifer A. Doudna (US) and Jack W. Szostak (US) found that the Tetrahymena ribozyme could splice together multiple oligonucleotides aligned on a template strand to yield a fully complementary product strand. This reaction demonstrates the feasibility of RNA-catalyzed RNA replications and supports the RNA world hypothesis (460).

 

Bruce Michael Alberts (US), Walter Gilbert (US), and Antonio Lazcano (MX) proposed that DNA and proteins were derived from RNA-based cells or cell-like units (36; 583; 823).

 

Antonio Lazcano (MX) postulated that DNA evolved to replace RNA as the repository of hereditary information because, 1) DNA is much more resistant to harsh environmental conditions, 2) DNA is less prone to mutations which cannot be repaired, 3) cytosines in DNA are not as prone to spontaneously deaminate to uracil as they are in RNA, and 4) the duplex nature of DNA offered redundancy, which when coupled with repair mechanisms had a distinct advantage over simplex RNA without a repair mechanism (824).

 

Carl R. Woese (US) originally described the progenote as the last common ancestor for archaebacteria (Archaea), eubacteria (Bacteria), and eukaryotes (Eucarya). It contained informational polymers, could synthesize polypeptides, and was still evolving a link between genotype and phenotype (1475; 1476).

 

Francis Harry Compton Crick (GB), Sydney Brenner (ZA-GB), Aaron Klug (ZA-GB), and George Pieczenik (US) proposed that the assignment of codons to particular amino acids was simply an historical accident, there being no special reasons why a particular codon stands for a given amino acid (363).

 

J. William Schopf (US), John M. Hayes (US), and Malcolm R. Walter (US), speculated that life on Earth might have arisen as early as 3.9 G (1215).

 

Norman Harold Horowitz (US) and Jerry S. Hubbard (US) proposed how complex sequential metabolic pathways may have arisen as the result of selective pressure. The retrograde model.

Suppose that a contemporary cellular pathway makes a required substance such as an amino acid through the sequence A to B to C to D to E, in which A is a simple inorganic substance and E is the final organic product. Initially E was plentiful in the environment and was absorbed directly by primitive aggregates. Later, as E became scarce because of use, chemical selection favored pre-cells that could make E from D, a slightly less complex organic substance still found in abundance in the environment. As D became exhausted, selection favored assemblies that developed the pathway C to D to E, in which the even simpler substance C could be absorbed and used as raw material to make D. This process continued until the entire synthetic pathway, based on an essentially inexhaustible inorganic substance, was established (703; 704).

 

Karl O. Stetter (DE) concluded that the origin of life probably took place under conditions of high temperature because the hyperthermophiles are grouped around and occupy all the deepest branches of the three-kingdom phylogenetic scheme. He also concluded that an anaerobic hyperthermophilic autotroph was very likely the original cell type (1297).

 

Günter Wächtershäuser (DE) presented a hypothesis supporting chemoautotrophy as the first form of metabolism to appear within life forms on the primitive Earth. He argued that these life forms were coatings that adhered to the positively charged surfaces of pyrite, a mineral composed of iron and sulfur. The formation of pyrite from hydrogen sulfide provides a source of electrons as an energy source (1414).

 

c. 3.5 G

J. William Schopf (US) found rock bearing 3.5-billion-year-old microfossils in the Onverwacht formation in South Africa (1211). The microfossils were interpreted to be prokaryotes (1212; 1216).

 

Mark E. Barley (AU), John S.R. Dunlop (AU), Joseph John Edmund Glover (AU), David I. Groves (AU), and Roger Buick (AU) concluded from their studies of sedimentary rocks in Western Australia that near 3.5 G there existed a shallow marine environment dominated by episodic island volcanism and hydrothermal activity (129; 616).

 

Stanley M. Awramik (US), J. William Schopf (US), Malcolm R. Walter (US), and Bonnie M. Packer (US) found rock bearing 3.5 G microfossils within early Archean (Gk. archaios=ancient) stromatolites (106; 1213; 1217). The microfossils were interpreted to be prokaryotes and to represent the oldest fossils known (1216).

Brian W. Logan (AU), Richard Rezak (US), and Robert N. Ginsburg (US) discovered living cryptozoon and associate stromatolites at Shark Bay, Western Australia (871; 872; 1090; 1091).

 

Harald Furnes (NO), Neil R. Banerjee (CA), Karlis Muehlenbachs (CA), Hubert Staudigel (US), and Maarten De Wit (NL) found tiny holes in volcanic glass. They believe microorganisms etched these tiny holes, c. 3.5 G (552).

 

Norman Richard Pace, Jr. (US) indicated that the Archaea and Bacteria diverged from one another near the time that life arose on Earth. This changed the notion of evolutionary unity among prokaryotes. The phylogenetic data support the very early appearance of the eukaryotic nuclear line of descent. The Eucarya is as old as the prokaryotic lines Archaea and Bacteria. The idea that eukaryotes resulted from the fusion of two prokaryotes and are late arrivals on the evolutionary stage (1-1.5 G) is incorrect (1036).

 

Carl R. Woese (US) proposed that the halophilic archaebacteria (Archaea) are a group of aerobic or microaerophilic organisms that evolved from a strictly anaerobic and nonhalophilic methanogen ancestor. Woese also constructed a trifurcated, unrooted, universal evolutionary tree in which all known organisms can be grouped in one of three major lineages: eubacteria (Bacteria), the archaebacteria (Archaea), and the eukaryotic (Eucarya) nucleocytoplasm. This is often referred to simply as the three-kingdom scheme (1476).

 

Mitchell Lloyd Sogin (US), John H. Gunderson (US), Hillie J. Elwood (US), Rogelio A. Alonso (US), and Debra A. Peattie (US) determined that the 16S-like rRNA of the diplomonad Giardia lamblia has retained many of the features that may have been present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes (Eucarya) and prokaryotes (Archaea or Bacteria). They concluded that it represents the earliest-branching eukaryotic lineage (1278).

 

Mitchell Lloyd Sogin (US) declared that some microbial lineages seem never to have had mitochondria and chloroplasts, so may have diverged from the eukaryotic (Eucarya) line of descent prior to the incorporation of the organelles (1277).

 

c. 3.235 G

Birger Rasmussen (AU) discovered pyritic filaments, the probable fossil remains of thread-like microorganisms, in a 3,235-million-year-old deep-sea volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit from the Pilbara Craton of Australia (1122). Note: From their mode of occurrence, the microorganisms were probably thermophilic chemotropic prokaryotes, which inhabited sub-sea-floor hydrothermal environments. They represent the first fossil evidence for microbial life in a Precambrian submarine thermal spring system and extend the known range of submarine hydrothermal biota by more than 2,700 million years. Such environments may have hosted the first living systems on Earth, consistent with proposals for a thermophilic origin of life. See, Corliss, 1981.

 

c. 2.7 G

Roger E. Summons (AU), Linda L. Jahnke (AU), Janet M. Hope (AU), Graham A. Logan (AU), Jochen J. Brocks (AU), and Roger Buick (AU) found molecular fossils of biological lipids preserved in 2,700-million-year-old shales from the Pilbara Craton, Australia. This makes these the oldest known biomolecules. The presence of abundant 2 alpha-methylhopanes, which are characteristic of cyanobacteria, indicates that oxygenic photosynthesis evolved well before the atmosphere became oxidizing. The presence of steranes, particularly cholestane and its 28- to 30-carbon analogs, provides persuasive evidence for the existence of eukaryotes 500 million to 1 billion years before the extant fossil record indicates that the lineage arose (231; 1310).

 

c. 2.5 G

The Proterozoic Era (Gk. proteros=early; zoe=life) extended from 2.5 G to 544 Ma. It is considered to represent the most recent Era of the Precambrian Time.

 

c. 2.1 G

Preston Ercelle Cloud, Jr. (US) proposed a working model of the primitive Earth in which he related atmospheric-geologic-biologic history of the Precambrian (322).

 

Stanley A. Tyler (US) and Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn (US) reported the discovery of fossil microscopic organisms in an outcropping of mid-Precambrian rocks called the Gunflint Iron formation near Lake Superior in Ontario. Most of these fossils resemble present day bacteria and cyanobacteria. This was the first indisputable evidence of Precambrian life (1366). Barghoorn, Tyler, and Preston Ercelle Cloud, Jr. (US) later confirmed these findings and discussed their significance (127; 321). Note: Other Precambriam fossil sites include: the Fig Tree Group, Africa; the Bulawayan Formation, Africa; the Gunflint Iron Formation, Minnesota/Canada; the Belcher Group, Hudson Bay; Bitter Springs, Australia; and the Ediacaran Sites, Australia.

 

Tsu-Ming Han (US) and Bruce N. Runnegar (AU-US) found fossils of the multi-cellular Grypania spiralis (probably an alga) in the 2.1 G Negaunee Iron Formation in Michigan, U.S.A. (632).

Malcom R. Walter (US), Du Rulin (US), and Robert Joseph Horodyski (US) had previously discovered multi-cellular fossils (c.1.4 G) in old Greyson Shale, lower Belt Supergroup, in Montana, US, and from the similarly aged Gaoyuzhuang Formation, upper Changcheng Group, in the Jixian section, Northern China. The organism was identified as Grypania spiralis, a coiled ribbon-like creature. It was judged to most likely have been a multi-cellular eukaryotic alga (1427). Shale is rock formed by condensation of layers of clay or mud, along with phytoplankton and other debris, deposited at the bottoms of lakes or ocean basins.

 

Konstantin Sergejewitsch Mereschkowsky (RU) proposed the theory of the symbiotic origin of the eukaryotic cell and introduced the term symbiogenesis to signify the emergence of new species with identifiably new physiologies and structures as a consequence of stable integration of symbionts. It stated that the chloroplast and mitochondria of eukaryotic cells had their origins from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria and aerobic bacteria, respectively, whose ancestors were once captured and incorporated by a primitive, anaerobic, heterotrophic host. Many others would later refine this theory (284; 285; 783; 784; 917; 956).

 

c. 2 G

J. William Schopf (US) Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn (US), Morton D. Maser (US), and Robert O. Gordon (US) found microscopic formations that looked very much like traces of cyanobacteria in 2-billion-year-old rock called Gunflint chert. The find was near Lake Superior in Canada (1214). Cherts are rocks composed of minute interlocking grains of silica, occurring as the mineral quartz (SiO2).

Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn (US) and J. William Schopf (US) discovered fossils of microorganisms in stromatolitic cherts of the Neoproterozoic Bitter Springs Formation of the Amadeus Basin of Central Australia (126; 1210).

Other Precambrian fossil sites include: the Fig Tree Group, Africa; the Bulawayan Formation, Africa; the Gunflint Iron Formation, Minnesota/Canada; the Belcher Group, Hudson Bay; Bitter Springs, Australia; and the Ediacaran Sites, Australia.

 

c. 1.8 G- 600 M (mega annum = million years)

Zh Zhang (CN) discovered large (40-200 micrometer) spherical microfossils 1.8 to 1.9 billion years old in sedimentary rocks from China. These microfossils were interpreted to be the earliest known eukaryotes (Eucarya) (1499).

 

c. 1.4 G

Malcolm R. Walter (US), Du Rulin (US), and Robert Joseph Horodyski (US) discovered the oldest known multicellular fossils. They were removed from 1400 M Old Greyson Shale, Lower Belt Supergroup, in Montana, US, and from the similarly aged Gaoyuzhuang Formation, Upper Changcheng Group, in the Jixian Section, Northern China. The organism was identified as Grypania spiralis, a coiled ribbon-like creature. It was judged to most likely have been a multicellular eukaryotic alga (1427). Note: Shale is rock formed by condensation of layers of clay or mud sediment, along with phytoplankton and other debris, at the bottoms of lakes or ocean basins.

 

c. 1 G

The ultraviolet absorbing ozone layer in Earth's atmosphere began to appear. High in the atmosphere, some oxygen (O2) molecules absorbed energy from the Sun's ultraviolet rays and split to form single oxygen atoms. These atoms combined with remaining oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3) molecules, which are very effective at absorbing UV rays. Most microorganisms had already evolved ways to protect themselves from ultraviolet radiation, e.g. DNA repair systems, ultraviolet absorbing pigments, and outer skeletons (1363).

 

Joseph Felsenstein (US) created evolutionary trees using rRNA sequences and a maximum likelihood approach. He concluded that the Plantae, Animalia, and Fungi along with two new evolutionary assemblages (alveolates and stramenophiles) diverged nearly simultaneously (509). Alveolates include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliated protozoans. The stramenopiles include brown algae, labyrinthulids, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, diatoms, and oomycetes (1064).

 

Elso Sterrenberg Barghoorn (US) and J. William Schopf (US) discovered fossils of microorganisms in stromatolitic cherts of the Neoproterozoic Bitter Springs Formation of the Amadeus Basin of central Australia (126; 1210). Cherts are rocks composed of minute interlocking grains of silica, occurring as the mineral quartz (SiO2).

Other Precambrian fossil sites include: the Fig Tree Group, Africa; the Bulawayan Formation, Africa; the Gunflint Iron Formation, Minnesota/Canada; the Belcher Group, Hudson Bay; Bitter Springs, Australia; and the Ediacaran Sites, Australia.

 

Gerard Peter Kuiper (NL-US) proposed that the Earth’s early atmosphere was rich in hydrogen and helium most of which would drift into space over the next 1 billion years and be replaced by a secondary atmosphere rich in heavier gases (806).

 

c. 700 M (mega-annum = million years)

Paul F. Hoffman (US), Alan J. Kaufman (US), Galen P. Halverson (US), and Daniel P. Schrag (US) theorized that the explosion of life-forms in the Cambrian resulted following extended glaciation during which the entire Earth was covered thus killing most life forms. Volcanic eruptions then released enough carbon dioxide to warm the Earth creating vast shallow seas in which rapid evolution occurred. They called it neoproterozoic snowball Earth (684; 685).

 

J. William Schopf (US), Bonnie M. Packer (US), Roger Buick (AU), and Stanley M. Awramik (US) presented evidence for a well-established community of oxygenic photosynthesizers (105; 255; 1217).

 

Charles Doolittle Walcott (US) identified pillar shaped masses of thinly layered limestone rock in Precambrian strata from the Grand Canyon in Western North America. Although he did not understand their significance as fossils he later interpreted these pillar like structures of limestone as fossilized reefs laid down by algae (cyanobacteria) (1416). These pillar-like structures called cryptozoon (hidden life) are now called stromatolites.

 

Charles Doolittle Walcott (US) described an important clue in the search for Precambrian life when he discovered fossils in Precambrian carbon-rich shales on the slopes of a prominent butte deep within the Grand Canyon. The shales belonged to what is known as the Chuar Group of strata, so, Walcott named the fossils Chuaria. Chuaria is now known to be an unusually large, originally spheroidal, single-celled planktonic alga, i.e., a megasphaeromorph acritarch. Walcott's specimens were indeed authentic fossils, the first true Precambrian organisms where cellular detail is recorded (1417).

 

c. 635 M

Roger Mason (GB) Tina Negus (GB) and other school children discovered in Charnwood Forest, England the Precambrian fossil remains of what may very well be the oldest known multicellular animal (later named Charnia). Trevor D. Ford (GB) reported this discovery. The position of the clade for this organism in the tree of life remains uncertain (530).

Jonathan B. Antcliffe (GB) and Martin D. Brasier (GB) note that Charnia is both temporally and geographically the most widespread Ediacaran fossil (69).

Guy M. Narbonne (CA) and James G. Gehling (AU) report that the greatest abundance of specimens of Charnia, which are also the oldest reliably dated Ediacaran fossils, are found along the southeast coast of Newfoundland (991). Note: Other Precambrian fossil sites include: the Fig Tree Group, Africa; the Bulawayan Formation, Africa; the Gunflint Iron Formation, Minnesota/Canada; the Belcher Group, Hudson Bay; Bitter Springs, Australia; and the Ediacaran Sites, Australia.

 

c. 600 M

Reginald Claude Sprigg (AU) discovered Precambrian metazoan fossils in the Pound Quartzite at Ediacara Hills and in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia. At the time of discovery, he thought these fossils were from the Cambrian (1286; 1287).

 

Ilya Bobrovskiy (AU), Janet M. Hope (AU), Andrey Ivantsov (RU), Benjamin J. Nettersheim (DE), Christian Hallmann (DE), Jochen J. Brooks (AU) used lipid biomarkers obtained from Dickinsonia fossils and found that the fossils contained almost exclusively cholesteroids, a marker found only in animals. Thus, Dickinsonia were basal animals. This supports the idea that the Ediacaran biota may have been a precursor to the explosion of animal forms later observed in the Cambrian, about 500 million years ago (192).

 

Martin Fritz Glaessner (CZ-AU) and Mary Wade (AU) determined fossils in the Ediacara Hills of South Australia (Ediacaran fauna) to be late Precambrian in age, making them the oldest-known multi-celled organisms (586-589).

 

Mary L. Droser (US) and James G. Gehling (AU) believe they have found the earliest fossil evidence for sexual reproduction in Funisia, an Ediacaran "animal". Its relationship to other animals is unknown (461).

 

c. 590-550 M

The Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era extended from 590 M to 505 M.

The word Cambrian is taken from Cambria, the Latin name for modern Wales. Other fossil rich Cambrian sites include: Chengjiang, China; the Wheeler Formation in Utah; and the Croixan Series in Minnesota/Wisconsin.

With one exception (the phylum Bryozoa), every metazoan phylum with hard parts, and many that lack hard parts, made their first appearances in the Cambrian. However, Cambrian marine life was quite different from modern biotas; the dominant invertebrates with hard parts were trilobites, inarticulate brachiopods, archaeocyathids, and problematic conical fossils known as hyolithids. Many Early Cambrian invertebrates are known only from small shelly fossils - tiny plates and scales and spines and tubes and so on, many of which were pieces of the skeletons of larger animals (1225). Note: This publication initiated the early Paleozoic time scale. Many Cambrian fossils are found in shale (a rock formed by condensation of layers of clay or mud, along with phytoplankton and other debris, deposited at the bottoms of lakes or ocean basins).

 

c. 544 M

The Phanerozoic Eon (Gk. phaneros=visible; zoe=life) extends from 544 M to the present. It contains three eras, the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.

 

c. 541 M

Alexandr Petrovich Karpinsky (RU) recorded his classic work on Paleozoic fossil sharks of the family Edestidae (763; 765).

 

c. 513 M

Charles Doolittle Walcott (US), in 1909, discovered a rich assemblage of algae and invertebrate fossils from the Middle Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era in the Burgess shale located in Yoho National Park in the Rocky Mountains, near Field, British Columbia, Canada (1418). Note: The word Cambrian is taken from a Latin form of the Welsh name for Wales. Other fossil rich Cambrian sites include Chengjiang, China, the Wheeler Formation in Utah, and the Croixan Series in Minnesota-Wisconsin. (Shale is rock formed by condensation of layers of clay or mud, along with phytoplankton and other debris, sedimented at the bottoms of lakes or ocean basins.)

 

Harry Blackmore Whittington (GB), in 1966, began re-examining Burgess Shale fossils originally identified by Charles Doolittle Walcott (US) as early as 1909. Over the next two decades, Whittington, with the assistance of his graduate students Simon Conway-Morris (GB) and Derek Briggs (GB), eventually overturned Walcott's theories that these organisms all belonged to modern phyla and proposed that most of the specimens are much more complex than originally believed, and have left no living relatives (347; 1450; 1451).

 

c. 505 M

Charles Lapworth (GB), from his extensive analysis of graptolite fossils in Scotland, proposed the Ordovician System of strata to resolve the Murchison-Sedgwick conflict over their overlapping claims for their Silurain and Cambrian systems (822). The Ordovician (from the name of an ancient British tribe, the Ordovices) Period of the Paleozoic Era extended from 505 M until 438 M. At the end of the Cambrian, sea levels fell, causing extinctions. It was in the Ordovician that the first animals with backbones arose, the Agnatha, these jawless fishes were the first animals with true bony skeletons. The Ordovician is best known for the presence of its diverse marine invertebrates, including, corals, graptolites, trilobites, brachiopods, and the conodonts (early vertebrates). A typical marine community consisted of these animals, plus red and green algae, primitive fish, cephalopods, corals, crinoids, and gastropods. More recently, there has been found evidence of tetrahedral spores that are like those of primitive land plants, suggesting that plants invaded the land at this time.

Paul Kendrick (US) and Peter R. Crane (US) reasoned that the actual colonization of land by plants could have begun during the Early Cambrian, considering that the appearance of dispersed plant spores predated the first land plant megafossils by c. 50 million years (776).

 

The Ordovician Period ended with a mass extinction. About 25% of all families did not make it into the Silurian.

Classic fossil-bearing rocks of the Ordovician Period include: Whiterock Formation, Utah; and the Nevada Cincinnatian Series, Ohio/Indiana/ Kentucky.

 

c. 466 M

Jane Gray (US), Wilson N. Stewart (US), and Gar W. Rothwell (US) suggest that the first major adaptive radiation by plants onto land occurred in the mid Ordovician (466 M). These early plants are represented by abundant obligate spore tetrads; this assemblage persisted from the mid Ordovician to about the mid-late Early Silurian (429.5-416 M). The close similarity of the fossil tetrads with obligate spore tetrads produced by some hepatics and mosses suggests a non-vascular vegetative grade of organization for plants of this interval. During this period most land was collected into the southern supercontinent Gondwana (608; 1301).

 

Jonathan P. Rast (CA) and Katherine M. Buckley (CA) showed that differences between the immune response of humans and their ancestors only become apparent when comparing humans with jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish; the last common ancestor with humans lived 460 million years ago). Jawless fish use a more primitive immune system which, nevertheless, already consists of variable lymphocyte receptors (1124).

 

Peter R. Sheldon (GB) collected 15,000 trilobite specimens from the Ordivician stratum around Builth Wells, England. Their fossilized remains make a strong case for gradual evolutionary change (1255).

 

444-359 M

Thomas Chrowder Chamberlain (US) was the first to suggest a continental freshwater origin of vertebrates during the Silurian and Devonian time (294). Currently most scholars support a marine origin for vertebrates.

 

c. 439 M

Roderick Impey Murchison (GB) defined and named the Silurian Period commemorating the Silures, an ancient tribe that had inhabited the type area in the Welsh borderland region (987). The Silurian Period of the Paleozoic Era lies between approximately 438 M and 408 M. No new major groups of organisms appeared at this time, with old groups flourishing or declining. It is at this time that our first good evidence of life on land is preserved, including the earliest fossils of vascular plants and relatives of spiders and centipedes. The insects arose in the Silurian, probably becoming the first animal forms to venture out of the water. Increased ozone from photosynthetic water plants provided protection from ultraviolet rays, making the terrestrial environment hospitable to those organisms that could prevent desiccation. Coral reefs made their first appearance during this time, and the Silurian was also a remarkable time in the evolution of fishes. Not only does this period mark the wide and rapid spread of jawless fish, but also the highly significant appearances of both the first known freshwater fish as well as the first fish with jaws.

Classic Fossil-Bearing rocks of the Silurian Period include: Wadi Ram in Jordon; Brandon Bridge in Wisconsin; and the Brownsport Group in Tennessee.

 

Martha Allen Sherwood-Pike (US) and Jane Gray (US) reported finding fossil evidence of fungi (Ascoymcota) in material from the Silurian period (438-408 M) (1258).

 

Errol Ivor White (GB) discovered a fossil of Jamoytius kerwoodi in deposits of Silurian rock in Scotland. It is probably the most primitive chordate known and may throw some light on the early ancestry of vertebrates (1447).

 

c. 429.5 M

Jan Gray (US) decided that the interval from the mid-late Early Silurian (429.5-416 M) to the Pridoli (423 ± 2.3 and 419.2 ± 3.2 M) largely coincides with the appearance of vascular plant megafossils. It is hypothesized on the basis of the spore assemblages that this interval is one of major establishment of large populations of genetically diverse plants exploiting a broad spectrum of ecological sites (608).

 

Wout Boerjan (BE), John Ralph (BE), and Marie Baucher (BE) presented a current picture of monolignol biosynthesis, polymerization, and lignin structure. They noted that it was not until the rise of tracheophytes, which had developed the ability to deposit the phenylpropanoid polymer lignin in their cell wall, that land plants truly flourished and began their dominance of the terrestrial ecosystem. Lignin bestowed the early tracheophytes with the physical rigidity to stand upright, strengthened the water-conducting cells for long-distance water transport, and allowed plants to expand significantly in body size compared with their sister group, the bryophytes. The nature and randomness of the linkages in lignin also made lignin one of the most difficult biopolymers to degrade, an ideal characteristic for a defensive barrier against the pathogens and herbivores that would soon co-evolve with vascular plants (196).

 

c. 420 M

Dianne Edwards (GB) and E. Catherine W. Rogerson (GB) discovered Cooksonia pertonii near Brecon Beacons, England in 420 M rock (475; 476). William H. Lang (GB) had earlier positioned it as the earliest known land-living vascular plant found in England and one of the earliest in the world (818).

 

c. 414 M

Leif Størmer (NO) reported that arthropods likely invaded the land during late Silurian and early Devonian times (1305; 1306).

 

c. 408 M

Adam Sedgwick (GB) and Roderick Impey Murchison (GB) presented researches on certain rocks in Devonshire, England, which had a distinctive fossil assemblage that led them to propose a new division of the geological time scale—the Devonian. They first used Devonian in a publication (1226). Note: This represents the discovery of the Devonian Period—408 M to 360 M—of the Paleozoic Era.

William Lonsdale (GB), in 1837, suggested from a study of the fossils of the South Devon limestones that they would prove to be of an age intermediate between the Carboniferous and Silurian systems. It was Lonsdale who coined the term Devonian, commemorating Devon County, England (876).

 

The Devonian seas were dominated by brachiopods, such as the spiriferids, and by tabulate and rugose corals, which built large bioherms, or reefs, in shallow waters. Encrusting red algae also contributed to reef building. In the Lower Devonian, ammonoids appeared, leaving us large limestone deposits from their shells. Bivalves, crinoid and blastoid echinoderms, graptolites, and trilobites were all present, though most groups of trilobites disappeared by the close of the Devonian. The Devonian is also notable for the rapid diversification in fish. Benthic armored fish are common by the Early Devonian. These early fish are collectively called ostracoderms and include a number of different groups. By the Mid-Devonian, placoderms, the first jawed fish, appear. Many of these grew to large sizes and were fearsome predators. Of the greatest interest to us is the rise of the first sarcopterygiians, i.e., the lobe-finned fish, which eventually produced the first tetrapods just before the end of the Devonian. By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. Before this time, there is no organic accumulation in the soils, causing these soil deposits to be a reddish color. This is indicative of the underdeveloped landscape, probably colonized only by bacterial and algal mats. By the start of the Devonian, however, early terrestrial vegetation had begun to spread. These plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably spread largely by vegetative growth and did not grow much more than a few centimeters tall. These plants included the now extinct zosterophylls and trimerophytes. The early fauna living among these plants were primarily arthropods: mites, trigonotarbids, wingless insects, and myriapods, though these early faunas are not well known. By the Late Devonian, lycophytes, sphenophytes, ferns, and progymnosperms had evolved. Most of these plants have true roots and leaves, and many are rather tall plants. The progymnosperm Archaeopteris was a large tree with true wood. It is the oldest such tree known and produced some of the world's first forests. This rapid appearance of so many plant groups and growth forms has been called the Devonian Explosion. Along with this diversification in terrestrial vegetation structure, came a diversification of the arthropods.

Rocks rich in Devonian fossils include: Silica Shale in Ohio; Bundenbach in Germany; Cleveland Shale in Ohio; and the Rhynie in Scotland.

 

Kesava Mukund Lele (GB) and John Walton (GB) reported that the earliest plant stomata appeared in Zosterophyllum myretonianum. These were more like stomata found in modern moss sporophytes. The type found in vascular plants appeared 4-5 M (849).

 

Tamara Anastasevna Ishchenko (RU) and R.N. Shylokov (RU) discovered fossil Marchantiales in Lower Middle Devonian material from the USSR. This provided evidence that some major bryophyte divisions were well established by the Lower Devonian and that the bryophytes in general must have played a part in the initial colonization of land by plants (732).

 

Alexandr Petrovich Karpinsky (RU) reported research on Devonian algae, the so-called charophytes. His study of the contemporary charophytes showed their closeness to extinct Devonian forms and indicated that they likely had a common ancestor (764; 765).

 

Jennifer A. Clack (GB) and Michael I. Coates (GB) reported on fossil specimens of the Devonian fish-like Acanthostega gunneri they collected during 1987 in Greenland. Their work strongly suggested that legs appeared in tetrapods well before they abandoned water and not vice-versa as had been suggested by the popular dry pond theory first articulated by Alfred Sherwood Romer (US) (314; 325-327).

 

Hagen Hass (DE), Thomas N. Taylor (US), Winfried Remy (PL-DE), and Hans Kerp (DE) found fossil hyphae in association with wood decay and fossil chytrids and Glomales-Endogenales representatives associated with plants of the Rhynie Chert from the Devonian Period (408-360 mya) (644; 1138; 1139; 1326; 1327). These findings strongly suggest that the ability to form an arbuscular-mycorrhizal symbiosis occurred early in the evolution of vascular plants.

 

Roy A. Norton (US), Patricia M. Bonamo (US), James D. Grierson (US), and William A. Shear (US) found that mites are among the oldest of all terrestrial animals, with fossils known from the early Devonian, nearly 400 M (1004).

 

c. 396 M

John William Dawson (CA) discovered fossil plant remains (Psilophyton princeps) in Middle and Lower Devonian rocks from the Gaspé Peninsula in Eastern Canada (382; 383).

Thore Gustaf Halle (SE), Robert Kidston (GB), and William H. Lang (GB) later found similar confirming fossils in the Rhynie Chert and established the order Psilophytes (627; 785).

Harlan Parker Banks (US) subsequently split the Psilophytes into three divisions: Rhyniophytina (Rhyniophyta), Zosterophyllophyta, and Trimerophytina (Trimerophytophyta) (122). One of the most famous Early Devonian land plant localities is Rhynie in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The Rhynie Chert is one of the most important fossil plant occurrences because it represents the oldest and most completely preserved terrestrial ecosystem. The Rhynie Chert has been radiometrically dated at 396 mya (Pragian). Plant remains show excellent cellular preservation. Three groups of plants are represented: the Rhyniophytes, the Zosterphyllophytes and a lycopod.

 

c. 387 M

Tamara Anastasevna Ishchenko (RU) and R.N. Shylokov (RU) discovered fossil Marchantiales in lower Middle Devonian material from the USSR providing evidence that some major bryophyte divisions were well established by the Lower Devonian and that the bryophytes in general must have played a part in the initial colonization of land by plants (732).

 

Charles B. Beck (US) reported that the original arborescent plants bore a planated lateral branch system with helically arranged simple leaves very similar to those of some modern conifers (148).

 

c. 375 M

Edward B. Daeschler (US), Neil H. Shubin (US), and Farish A. Jenkins (US) unearthed a fossil they named "Tiktaalik" on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic region of Canada. It is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish) from the Late Devonian Period, about 375 mya (million years ago), having many features akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals). It is technically a fish, complete with scales and gills - but it has the flattened head of a crocodile and unusual fins. Its fins have thin ray bones for paddling like most fish, but they also have sturdy interior bones that would have allowed "Tiktaalik" to prop itself up in shallow water and use its limbs for support as most four-legged animals do. Those fins and a suite of other characteristics set "Tiktaalik" apart as something special; it has a combination of features that show the evolutionary transition between swimming fish and their descendants, the four-legged vertebrates - a clade which includes amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals (378). Note: The name "Tiktaalik" is an Inuktitut word meaning "large freshwater fish."

 

c. 360 M

The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era occurred from about 360 to 286 mya. The term carboniferous comes from England and refers to the rich deposits of coal that occur there. These deposits of coal occur throughout Northern Europe, Asia, and Midwestern and Eastern North America. William Daniel Conybeare (GB) and William Phillips (GB) named the Carboniferous Period in their Outlines of Geology of England and Wales (348). The term carboniferous is used throughout the world to describe this period, although it has been separated into the Mississippian (Lower Carboniferous, 360 mya to 323 mya) and the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous, 323 mya to 286 mya) in the United States. This separation was adopted to distinguish the coal-bearing layers of the Pennsylvanian from the mostly limestone Mississippian and is a result of differing stratigraphy on the different continents. The Pennsylvanian was named in 1858 by Henry Darwin Rogers (US), and the Mississippian named by Alexander Winchell (US) in 1870; both these divisions were given system/period status in Geology by Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (US) and Rollin D. Salisbury (US) (296; 1155; 1468). In addition to having the ideal conditions for the beginnings of coal, several major biological, geological, and climatic events occurred during this time. One of the greatest biological evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain tetrapods. The amniote egg prevented the desiccation of the embryo inside thus allowing the ancestors of birds, mammals, and reptiles to reproduce on land. There was also a trend towards mild temperatures during the Carboniferous, as evidenced by the decrease in lycopods and large insects and an increase in the number of tree ferns.

Geologically, the Late Carboniferous collision of Laurussia (present-day Europe and North America) into Godwanaland (present-day Africa and South America) produced the Appalachian mountain belt of Eastern North America and the Hercynian Mountains in the United Kingdom. A further collision of Siberia and Eastern Europe created the Ural Mountains.

The stratigraphy of the Lower Carboniferous can be easily distinguished from that of the Upper Carboniferous. The environment of the Lower Carboniferous in North America was heavily marine when seas covered parts of the continents. As a result, most of the mineral found in Lower Carboniferous is limestone, which is composed of the remains of crinoids, lime-encrusted green algae, or calcium carbonate shaped by waves. The North American Upper Carboniferous environment was alternately terrestrial and marine, with the transgression and regression of the seas caused by glaciation. These environmental conditions, with the vast amount of plant material provided by the extensive coal forests allowed the production of coal. Plant material did not decay when the seas covered them. Pressure and heat built up over the millions of years to transform the plant material to coal.

Rocks rich in Carboniferous fossils include: Mazon Creek, Illinois, Joggins Formation, Nova Scotia, Edinburgh Coal Beds, Scotland, and Anthracite Coal Beds, Eastern United States.

 

Robert Arbuckle Berner (US) reported that organic carbon accumulated at an exceptionally high rate during the Carboniferous and Permian, resulting in the formation of vast coal deposits, derived primarily from lignin (175). Note: The sharp decline in the rate of organic carbon burial at the end of the Permo-Carboniferous was caused, at least in part, by the evolution of lignin decay capabilities in white rot Agaricomycetes .

 

 Andrew C. Scott (GB) and William Gilbert Chaloner (GB) provided the earliest fossil record of a gymnosperm, conifers from the Upper Carboniferous (1224).

 

John Walton (GB) presented evidence of mosses and liverworts from the Carboniferous deposits in England (1428).

 

c. 340 M

Erik Andersson Stensiö (SE) and Gunnar Säve-Söderbergh (SE), of the 1929-1930 Danish scientific expeditions, found ichthyostegid fossils in the upper Devonian sediments in Eastern Greenland. They appear to be intermediate between lobe-finned rhipidistians (Osteolepis) and early amphibians. These are the oldest known fossils that can be classified as amphibians (1195; 1294).

 

c. 335 M

Stan Wood (GB) discovered the 20 cm long fossilized remains of Westlothiana lizziae in East Kirkton, West Lothian, Scotland (near Edinburgh). Tim R. Smithson (GB), Robert Lynn Carroll (US-CA), Alec L. Panchen (GB), S. Mahala Andrews (GB), Roberta L. Paton (GB), and Jennifer Alice Clack (GB) clarified its taxonomic status and concluded that it might be the oldest known reptile and thus the oldest known amniote (1040; 1061; 1275; 1276).

 

William Martin (DE), Alfons Gierl (DE), Heinz Saedler (DE) reported molecular evidence suggesting that angiosperm ancestors underwent diversification more than 300 Myr. ago (930).

Kenneth H. Wolfe (US), Manolo Gouy (US), Yau-Wen Yang (US), Paul M. Sharp (US), and Wen-Hsiung Li (US) estimated the date of the divergence between monocots and dicots by reconstructing phylogenetic trees from chloroplast DNA sequences, using two independent approaches: The rate of synonymous nucleotide substitution was calibrated from the divergence of maize, wheat, and rice, whereas the rate of nonsynonymous substitution was calibrated from the divergence of angiosperms and bryophytes. Both methods lead to an estimate of the monocot-dicot divergence at 200 mya (with an uncertainty of about 40 mya). This estimate is also supported by analyses of the nuclear genes encoding large and small subunit ribosomal RNAs. These results imply that the angiosperm lineage emerged in Jurassic-Triassic time, which considerably predates its appearance in the fossil record (approximately 120 mya). They estimated the divergence between cycads and angiosperms to be approximately 340 mya, which can be taken as a lower boundary for the age of angiosperms (1477).

 

c. 286 M

The Permian Period of the Paleozoic Era (from Perm, a Russian province) lasted from 286 to 248 M. The Period was first defined by Roderick Impey Murchison (GB) (988). The distinction between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic is made at the end of the Permian in recognition of a large mass extinction of life on Earth. It affected many groups of organisms in many different environments, but it affected marine communities the most by far, causing the extinction of most of the marine invertebrates of the time. Some groups survived the Permian mass extinction in greatly diminished numbers, but they never again reached the ecological dominance they once had, clearing the way for another group of sea life. On land, a relatively smaller extinction of diapsids and synapsids cleared the way for other forms to dominate and led to what has been called the Age of Dinosaurs. Also, the great forests of fern-like plants shifted to gymnosperms, plants with their offspring enclosed within seeds. Modern conifers, the most familiar gymnosperms of today, first appear in the fossil record of the Permian. In all, the Permian was the last of time for some organisms and a pivotal point for others, and life on earth was never the same again.

The global geography of the Permian included massive areas of land and water. By the beginning of the Permian, the motion of the Earth's crustal plates had brought much of the total land together, fused in a supercontinent known as Pangea. Many of the continents of today in somewhat intact form met in Pangea (only Asia was broken up at the time), which stretched from the northern to the southern pole. Most of the rest of the surface area of the Earth was occupied by a corresponding single ocean, known as Panthalassa, with a smaller sea to the east of Pangea known as Tethys.

Models indicate that the interior regions of this vast continent were probably dry, with great seasonal fluctuations, because of the lack of the moderating effect of nearby bodies of water, and that only portions received rainfall throughout the year. The ocean itself still has little known about it. There are indications that the climate of the Earth shifted at this time, and that glaciation decreased, as the interiors of continents became drier.

Rocks rich in Permian fossils include: Glass Mountains, Texas; Abo Formation, New Mexico; Kuperschiefer, Germany; and Glossopteris flora in Gondwana localities.

Paul R. Renne (US), Michael T. Black (US), Zhang Zichao (CN), Mark A. Richards (US), and Asish R. Basu (US) showed synchrony and causal relations between the Permian-Triassic boundary crises and Siberian flood volcanism (1141).

Paul B. Wignall (GB) and Richard J. Twitchett (GB) presented data on rocks from Spitsbergen and the equatorial sections of Italy and Slovenia indicating that the world's oceans became anoxic at both low and high paleolatitudes in the Late Permian. Such conditions may have been responsible for the mass extinction at this time. This event affected a wide range of shelf depths and extended into shallow water well above the storm wave base (1456).

Samual A. Bowring (US), Douglas H. Erwin (US), Yugan G. Jin (CN), Mark W. Martin (US), Kathleen Davidek (US), and Wei Wang (CN) reported that uranium/lead zircon data from Late Permian and Early Triassic rocks from south China place the Permian-Triassic boundary at 251.4 ± 0.3 million years ago. Biostratigraphic controls from strata intercalated with ash beds below the boundary indicate that the Changhsingian pulse of the end-Permian extinction, corresponding to the disappearance of about 85 percent of marine species, lasted less than 1 million years (213). Note: Seth D. Burgess (US), Samuel A. Bowring (US), and Shu-zhong Shen (CN) refined the date of the Permian extinction to between 251.941 ± 0.037 and 251.880 ± 0.031 Mya (260).

Svetoslav Georgiev (US), Holly J. Stein (US), Judith L. Hannah (US), and Bernard Bingen (NO), Hermann M. Weiss (NO), and Stefan Piasecki (DK) presented evidence that hot acidic Late Permian seas stifled life in record time (573).

 

Andrei Vasilevich Martynov (RU) discovered the oldest undoubted Coleoptera (beetles) fossils in Upper Permian deposits in North Russia (931).

 

Francis Wall Oliver (AU) and Dunkinfield Henry Scott (GB) discovered evidence for the seed of Lyginodendron, which led to the removal of the Cycadofilices from the Pteridophyta (ferns, horsetails, and club-mosses) and their inclusion with the gymnosperms (1011).

“We now know that the true ferns were only present in the coal measures in small and archaic forms (Coenopteridales) very unlike living ferns and most likely all the conspicuous fern-like leaves of that era belonged to seed plants” (913).

 

Charles H. Sternberg (US) discovered the fossil remains of a creature showing both amphibian and reptilian characteristics. Ferdinand Broili (DE) would name it Seymouria baylorensis for Seymour, Texas in Baylor County (232).

Samuel Wendell Williston (US) and Ermine Cowles Case (US) described Seymouria and other labyrinthodont amphibian and reptile fossils from the Permian beds of Texas and New Mexico (276; 1463-1465).

 

251.9 M

Yadong Sun (CN), Michael M. Joachimski (DE), Paul B. Wignall (GB), Chunbo Yan (CN), Yanlong Chen (AT), Haishui Jiang (CN), Lina Wang (CN), and Xulong Lai (CN) suggested that the "Siberian Traps" are the primary cause of the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the most severe extinction event in the geologic record (1312). Note: The "Siberian Traps" is a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in Siberia, Russia. The massive eruptive event that formed the traps is one of the largest known volcanic events in the last 500 million years. The eruptions continued for roughly two million years and spanned the Permian–Triassic boundry, or P–T boundary, which occurred around 251.9 million years ago.

 

c. 248 M

Friedrich August von Alberti (DE) first used the term Triassic (Trias) when he named the three-division sequence of sandstone: 1) variegated (Bunter) sandstone, 2) shell (Muschelkalk) sandstone, and 3) Keuper sandstone (1399). The Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era was a time of transition following a mass extinction of life, with the survivors of that event spreading and recolonizing.

The organisms of the Triassic can be considered to belong to one of three groups: holdovers from the Permo-Triassic extinction, new groups which flourished briefly, and new groups which went on to dominate the Mesozoic world. The holdovers included the lycophytes, glossopterids, and dicynodonts. While those that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world include modern conifers, cycadeoids, and the dinosaurs.

Rocks rich in Triassic fossils include: the Moenkopi Formation, Arizona; Ischigualasto Badlands, Argentina; Newark Supergroup, Eastern U.S.A.; Djadochta, Mongolia; and the Chinle Formation, Arizona.

 

Thomas M. Harris (GB) presented excellent evidence of mosses in the Triassic of England (638; 639).

 

c. 245 M

S. Blair Hedges (US) and Laura L. Polong (US), Ying Cao (JP), Michael D. Sorenson (US), Yoshinori Kumazawa (JP), David P. Mindell (US), and Masami Hasegawa (JP) reported in a study of both nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA that the turtle is anapsid and the closest living relative of the crocodile. The results apparently establish a phylogenetic joining of crocodilians with turtles and place squamates at the base of the tree. This work presents molecular time estimates to support a Triassic origin for the major groups of living reptiles and supports the previous findings of James E. Platz (US), J. Michael Colon (US), John A.W. Kirsch (US), Gregory Christian Mayer (US), Rafael Zardoya (ES), and Axel Meyer (DE) (269; 651; 790; 1089; 1496).

 

c. 223 M

During the Carnian-Norian mass extinction event whole categories of animals abruptly vanished from the fossil record. Dinosaurs flourished, probably filling niches left empty when earlier successful types of animals suddenly were wiped out. Within a few million years, dinosaur remains accounted for 25 to 60 percent of the fossils. By 202 million years before the present, dinosaurs were diverse, sometimes gigantic, and dominant among land animals.

Paul E. Olsen (US), Dennis V. Kent (US), Hans-Dieter Sues (US), Christian Koeberl (AT), Heinz Huber (US), Alessandro Montanari (IT), Emma C. Rainforth (US), Sarah J. Fowell (US), Michael J. Szajna (US), and Brian W. Hartline (US) located a crater of the proper size and age to mark the landfall of an asteroid which could have had a devastating effect on many life forms. Manicouagan in Quebec, Canada is the site of the asteroid crater credited with eliminating competitors of early dinosaurs (1012).

 

c. 213 M

Alexandre-Theodore Brongniart, Jr. (FR) named the Jurassic Period Jurassique in 1829 for extensive limestone deposits in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland (233). This period was characterized by Great plant-eating dinosaurs roaming the earth, feeding on lush growths of ferns and palm-like cycads and bennettitaleans . . . smaller but vicious carnivores stalking the great herbivores . . . oceans full of fish, squid, and coiled ammonites, plus great ichthyosaurs and long-necked plesiosaurs . . . vertebrates taking to the air, like the pterosaurs and the first birds . . . this was the Jurassic Period, beginning 213 million years ago and lasting for 70 million years of the Mesozoic Era.

Rocks rich in Jurassic fossils include: the Lias Formation, England; Navajo Sandstone, Arizona; Solnhofen Limestone, Germany; and the Morrison Formation, Colorado/Utah/Wyoming.

 

Edwin H. Colbert (US), curator of the American Museum of Natural History, found a massive quarry of Coelophysis dinosaurs in New Mexico and concluded from their skeletons that these Triassic dinosaurs were swift runners with a bird-like posture (335; 336).

 

c. 200 M

S. Blair Hedges (US), Patrick H. Parker (US), Charles G. Sibley (US), and Sushi Kumar (US) used a comprehensive set of genes that exhibit a constant rate of substitution to estimate the time at which avian and mammalian orders diverged. Their estimates of divergence times averaged about 50-90% earlier than those predicted by the classical methods and show that the timing of these divergences coincides with the Mesozoic fragmentation of emergent land areas. This suggests that continental breakup may have been an important mechanism in the ordinal diversification of birds and mammals (650).

 

Albert Charles Seward (GB) and Jane Gowan (GB) found fossil records indicating that the ginkgo or maidenhair tree, Ginkgo biloba, has existed on Earth since the Liassic (early Jurassic) period meaning it has inhabited earth longer than any other tree; 200-176 M (6; 115; 380; 891; 1245).

Randolph T. Major (US) found that resistance of Ginkgo biloba L. to pests accounts in part for the longevity of this species (903).

 

Edouard Harlé (FR), Robert Dudley (US), Gauthier Chapelle (BE), and Lloyd S. Peck (GB) hypothesized that gigantism among prehistoric insects and other tracheal breathers was made possible by oxygen availability (298; 468; 636). Note: During the Late Carboniferous to Middle Permean atmospheric oxygen levels reached 30-35%, Maganeura (a relative on dragonflies) had wingspans up to 70 cm, and Arthopleura (a giant centipede) had lengths up to 2 meters.

 

c. 195 M

Mary Anning (GB) was celebrated as the outstanding fossil collector of her time. Among the many fossils collected and prepared by her are the first ichthyosaur skeleton and the first plesiosaur skeleton known to the English community. The ichthyosaur fossil was probably discovered sometime between 1809 and 1811, when Mary was only 10 to 12 years old. And while Mary did find the majority of the remains, her brother had discovered part of the animal twelve months earlier. Most of Mary's finds ended up in museums and personal collections without credit being given to her as the discoverer of the fossils (1355). Note: Ichthyosaurs flourished c. 200-190M. Pleisosaurs flourished c. 203-66 M.

 

Zhe-Xi Luo (US), Alfred W. Crompton (US), and Ai-Lin Sun (CN) discovered an extinct mammaliaform that lived during the Sinemurian stage of the Early Jurassic, approximately 195 million years ago, in the Lufeng basin in what is now the Yunnan province in Southwestern China. It is the earliest known example of several features possessed only by mammals, including the middle-ear structure characteristic of modern mammals and a relatively large brain cavity (888).

 

c. 180 M

Hermann von Meyer (DE) gave the name Archaeopteryx (Archeopteryx) to a fossil discovered in fine sandstone, Jurassic strata, of a quarry near Solenhofen, Bavaria in 1861. It appeared to be intermediate in character between reptiles and birds. The Natural History Section of the British Museum purchased the specimen subsequently described by Richard Owen (GB) (1035). In 1876 another fossil Archaeopteryx was discovered. This fossil, which now resides in the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, is of such rare quality and importance that Dr. Alan Feduccia says it, “may well be the most important natural history specimen in existence, comparable perhaps in scientific and even monetary value to the Rosetta stone” (508; 1227).

 

Lian-hai Hou (CN), Zhonghe Zhou (CN), Larry D. Martin (US), and Alan Feduccia (US) discovered Jurassic avian remains close to the age of Archaeopteryx in the Liaoning Province of Northeastern China providing the earliest evidence for a beaked, edentulous bird. The associated wing skeleton retains the primitive pattern found in Archaeopteryx, including a manus with unfused carpal elements and long digits. They named it Confuciusornis (705).

 

Sydney Savory Buckman (GB), published dozens of papers on ammonites, named hundreds of them, and invented a new way of dating rocks by time zones called hemera, each with their characteristic ammonites. His hemeral scheme for the Jurassic Period contained 370 hemera and 47 ages, the latter roughly corresponding to Oppel's sediment Zones (254).

 

c. 166 M

William Buckland (GB) published Notice on the Megalosaurus or Giant Fossil Lizard of Stonesfield. This was the first time a dinosaur fossil was described and named (the term dinosaur did not yet exist). In the same science meeting where he described Megalosaurus Buckland also announced the first fossil mammal from the Age of Reptiles (253). Note: Megalosaurus was later dated to the Middle Jurassic period.

In 1822, Gideon Algernon Mantell (GB) found the fossilized tooth of a Cretaceous animal he would characterize as herbivorous, reptilian, and tens of feet long; he would name it Iguanodon. After he prepared a paper reporting Iguanodon for the Royal Society the aforementioned William Buckland urged Mantell to delay, consequently it was Buckland not Mantell who first published on a dinosaur discovery. The Iguanodon is dated to late Jurassic.

Gideon Algernon Mantell (GB), as an amateur paleontologist, discovered and described from Cretaceous England many fossilized animals including: Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, Pelorosaurus, the first discovered brachiosaur, and Hylaeosaurus (911; 912).

 

George Poinar, Jr. (US) found members of an ancient genus of the Leishmania parasite, Paleoleishmania, in fossilized sand flies dating back to the early Cretaceous period (1101).

 

161-145 M

Othniel Charles Marsh (US) introduced and briefly described Apatosaurus ajax, (now known to be synonymous with Brontosaurus) (925; 926). Two years later, he described and introduced Brontosaurus, thinking they were different animals (927). Note: Apatosaurus means “deceptive lizard”; Brontosaurus means “thunder lizard”

 

Ge Sun (CN), David L. Dilcher (US), Shaoling Zheng (CN), and Zhe-Kun Zhou (CN) described the latest, best, and most unambiguous contender for the title of first true flower (angiosperm), Archaefructus sinensis. It was found in deposits from the Upper Jurassic (meaning Late Jurassic) of China (1311). Note: Angiosperms are defined as possessing carpels enclosing ovules.

 

c. 160 M

Qiang Ji (CN), Zhe-Xi Luo (US), Chong-Xi Yuan (CN), John R. Wible (US), Jian-Ping Zhang (CN), and Justin A. Georgi (US) described Juramaia sinensis, a small shrew-like mammal that lived in China 160 million years ago during the Jurassic. Juramaia is the earliest known fossil of eutherians–the group that evolved to include all placental mammals, which provide nourishment to unborn young via a placenta (743).

Shundong Bi (CN), Xiaoting Zheng (CN), Xiaoli Wang (CN), Natalie E. Cignetti (US), Shiling Yang (CN), and John R. Wible (US) reported a new Jehol eutherian, Ambolestes zhoui, with a nearly complete skeleton that preserves anatomical details such as the ectotympanic and hyoid apparatus that are unknown from contemporaneous mammals. This new fossil demonstrates that Sinodelphys is a eutherian, and that postcranial differences between Sinodelphys and the Jehol eutherian Eomaia—previously thought to indicate separate invasions of a scansorial niche by eutherians and metatherians—are instead variations among the early members of the placental lineage (178). Note: Jehol is defined as organisms that lived in Early Cretaceous volcanic-influenced environments of Northeastern China.

 

c. 150 M

George Reber Wieland (US) researched plant material derived from the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous beds of Maryland, Dakota, and Wyoming where he discovered the hermaphroditic nature of the bennettitean flower and recognized an affinity between the mesozoic cycadophyta and the angiosperms. The angiosperm with which he specially compared the fossil type was the Tulip tree (Liriodendron) and certainly there is a remarkable analogy with the magnoliaceous flowers, and with those of related orders such as Ranunculaceae and the water lilies (1453). Note: Bennettitales is an extinct order of seed plants that first appeared in the Permian period and became extinct in most areas toward the end of the Cretaceous.

 

Thomas Henry Huxley (GB) was the first to propose that birds originated from dinosaurs. All dinosaurs he examined had strong ornithic characteristics in the tetraradiate arrangement of the ilium, ischium, pubis, and femur. He combined the reptiles and birds into Sauropsida (722-724).

 

Wyn G. Jones (AU), Ken D. Hill (AU), and Jan M. Allen (AU) reported the 1994 discovery by David Noble (AU) in the Wollemi National Park in Australia of Wollemia nobilis, a new living genus and species in the Araucariaceae. This type of pine may be 150 million years old (752).

 

Jean-Jacques Pouech (FR) was the first naturalist to discover dinosaur eggshells. The material was Late Cretaceous rock from the Pyrenees Mountains (1104).

Karl F. Hirsch (US), Kenneth L. Stadtman (US), Wade E. Miller (US), and James H. Madsen, Jr. (US) discovered a fossilized dinosaur egg that contains the oldest known animal embryo of any kind, probably the embryo of an allosaur from about 150 mya. X-rays of the egg detected an embryo less than 2 cm long (682).

 

c. 144 M

Jean-Baptiste-Julien d' Omalius d'Halloy (BE) first used the term Terrain Cretace (Cretaceous Period) in 1822 to describe chalk and greensand of Northern France (1013; 1014). The Cretaceous is usually noted for being the last portion of the Age of Dinosaurs, but that does not mean that new kinds of dinosaurs did not appear then. It is during the Cretaceous that the first ceratopsian and pachycepalosaurid dinosaurs appeared. During this time, we find the first fossils of many insect groups, modern mammal and bird groups, and the first flowering plants. The breakup of the world-continent Pangaea, which began to disperse during the Jurassic, continued. This led to increased regional differences in floras and faunas between the northern and southern continents. The end of the Cretaceous brought the end of many previously successful and diverse groups of organisms, such as non-avian dinosaurs and ammonites. This laid open the stage for those groups which had previously taken secondary roles to come to the forefront. The Cretaceous was thus the time in which life as it now exists on Earth came together. Cretaceous deposits occur in Wealden of England and Belgium; Early Cretaceous of Niger in Africa; Late Cretaceous of Egypt; Cloverly Formation of Montana; Early Cretaceous of Mongolia; and Early Cretaceous lacustrine deposits of Lioning Province, China. See, Ge Sun, 161-145 M

 

Xing Xu (CN) suggested that recent discoveries of feathered dinosaurs from Early Cretaceous deposits in Liaoning, China, have not only lent strongest support for the dinosaurian hypothesis of bird origins, but have also provided muchneeded information about the origins of feathers and avian flight. Preliminary analysis of character evolution suggests that the major avian osteological characters were acquired during the early evolution of maniraptoran dinosaurs. The available evidence also suggests that the first feathers with a filamentous morphology probably evolved in basal coelurosaurs and pennaceous feathers (including those with aerodynamic features). Feathers likely developed in nonavian maniraptorans, indicating that feathers evolved before the origin of birds and their flight (1489).

 

Jonathas Souza Bittencourt (BR), Tiago Rodrigues Simões (US), Michael Wayne Caldwell (CA), and Max Cardoso Langer (BR) described a new lizard species that represents the oldest (Early Cretaceous) fossil squamate from South America, demonstrating that squamates were present on that continent at least 20 million years earlier than previously recorded. They named it Neokotus sanfranciscanus. The new species represents the first occurrence of the extinct squamate family Paramacellodidae in South America and displays an unusual limb morphology. Their findings suggest early South American squamates were part of a much broader distribution of their respective clades, in sharp contrast to the high levels of endemicity characteristic of modern faunas (184).

 

Henry Fairfield Osborn (US) described the Tyrannosaurus rex that Barnum Brown (US) discovered in 1902 in Hell Creek, Montana (1025).

Mary Higby Schweitzer (US), Zhiyong Suo (US), John M. Asara (US), Mark A. Allen (US), Fernando Teran Arce (US), and John R. Horner (US) performed multiple analyses of Tyrannosaurus rex fibrous cortical and medullary tissues remaining after demineralization. The results indicate that collagen I, the main organic component of bone, has been preserved in low concentrations in these tissues. The findings were independently confirmed by mass spectrometry. They propose a possible chemical pathway that may contribute to this preservation. The presence of endogenous protein in dinosaur bone may validate hypotheses about evolutionary relationships, rates, and patterns of molecular change and degradation, as well as the chemical stability of molecules over time (1221).

 

Ji Qiang (CN), Philip J. Currie (CA), Mark A. Norell (US), and Ji Shu-an (CN) found two species of dinosaur in Northeast China, which possessed feathers. Protoarchaeopteryx robusta and Caudipteryx zoui show regiges, rectrices and plumulaceous feather impressions. Further, they are not birds, lacking a reverted (backwards facing) big toe and a quadratojugal squamosal contact, having a quadratojugal joined to the quatrate by a ligament and a reduced or absent process of the ischium. These and other characters group Protoarchaeopteryx and Caudipteryx with maniraptoran coelurosaurs rather than birds (1115).

 

Hiroshige Matsuoka (JP), Nao Kusuhashi (JP), and Ian J. Corfe (FI) uncovered dozens of fossilized teeth in Kuwajima, Japan, and identified this as a new species of tritylodontid, an animal family that supports the evolution of mammals from reptiles. The finding suggests that tritylodontids co-existed with some of the earliest mammal species for millions of years, overturning beliefs that mammals wiped out mammal-like reptiles soon after they emerged (938).

 

c. 135 M

Kenneth A. Kermack (GB), Patricia M. Lees (GB), and Frances Mussett (GB) described the Early Cretaceous fossil Aegialodon dawsoni as the oldest known fossil to be a common ancestor to the marsupials and placentals (780).

 

John R. Horner (US) and Robert Makelar (US) reported several fossilized dinosaur nests, which proved to them that some dinosaur parents cared for their young and even led to more evidence for the warm bloodedness theory. They were discovered by Marion Brandvold (US) in terrestrial sediments of the Two Medicine Formation (Upper Cretaceous) near Choteau, Teton County, Montana (702).

 

Cyril A. Walker (GB) described the Enantiornithes, a new subclass of fossil birds (1422). Note: Enantiornithes is a group of extinct avialans ("birds" in the broad sense), the most abundant and diverse group known from the Mesozoic era. Almost all retained teeth and clawed fingers on each wing, but otherwise looked much like modern birds externally.

c. 120 M

Robert Ashley Couper (GB) presented fossil evidence for the earliest undisputed angiosperm pollen. It is from the Bargeman stage (late early Cretaceous) (357).

 

Sushi Kumar (US) and S. Blair Hedges (US) presented evidence that at least five lineages of placental mammals arose more than 100 million years ago, and most of the modern orders seem to have diversified before the Cretaceous/Tertiary extinction of the dinosaurs (807).

 

Christiano Dal Sasso (IT) and Marco Signore (IT) reported from near Naples, Italy a very small theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous discovered by Giovanni Todesco. They named it Scipionyx samniticus. This dinosaur fossil, Italy’s first, contained organ imprints—the first ever seen in dinosaurs (379).

 

c. 108-115 M

John Harold Ostrom (US) described the carnivorous dinosaur Deinonychus as an agile, active warm-blooded theropod who may have hunted in packs (1031).

Robert T. Bakker (US) strongly argues that dinosaurs were warm-blooded and that many were very agile runners (117-119).

 

c. 100 M

Paul C. Sereno (US), Allison L. Beck (US), Didier B. Dutheil (FR), Boubacar Gado (NG), Hans C. E. Larsson (CA), Gabrielle H. Lyon (US), Jonathan D. Marcot (US), Oliver W. M. Rauhut (DE), Rudyard W. Sadlier (US), Christian A. Sidor (US), David J. Varricchio (US), Gregory P. Wilson (US), and Jeffrey A. Wilson (US) made one of the most important dinosaur finds of the 20th century in Niger, Africa. Later named Suchomimus tenerensis, this dinosaur was a massive, sailed back, fish eater, which lived 100 million years ago (1239).

 

Michael J. Stanhope (GB), Victor G. Waddell (GB), Ole Madsen (NL), Wilfried de Jong (NL), S. Blair Hedges (US), Gregory C. Cleven (US), Diana Kao (US), and Mark S. Springer (US) presented molecular evidence for multiple origins of the Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African insectivore mammals (1290).

 

Taiping Gao (CN), Xiangchu Yin (CN), Chungkun Shih (CN), Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn (RU), Xing Xu (CN), Sha Chen (CN), Chen Wang (CN), and Dong Ren (CN) reported ten nymph specimens of a new lineage of insect, Mesophthirus engeli gen et. sp. nov. within Mesophthiridae fam. nov. from the mid-Cretaceous (ca. 100 Mya) Myanmar (Burmese) amber. This new insect clade shows a series of ectoparasitic morphological characters such as tiny wingless body, head with strong chewing mouthparts, robust and short antennae having long setae, legs with only one single tarsal claw associated with two additional long setae, etc. Most significantly, these insects are preserved with partially damaged dinosaur feathers, the damage of which was probably made by these insects’ integument-feeding behaviors. This finding demonstrates that feather-feeding behaviors of insects originated at least in mid-Cretaceous, accompanying the radiation of feathered dinosaurs including early birds (565).

 

David S. Hibbett (US), David Grimaldi (US), and Michael J. Donoghue (US) reported finding Cretaceous mushrooms in amber. They found four mushroom forms, most with a complete intact cap containing distinct gills and a stalk, suggests evolutionary stasis of body form for 99 million years (669).

 

c. 83-70 M

Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden (US) and Fielding Bradford Meek (US), near the confluence of the Missouri and the Judith Rivers, collected unusual teeth later determined by paleontologist Joseph Leidy (US) to be those of the dinosaurs Trachodon, Troodon and Deinodon, making the 1854 expedition by Hayden and Meek the first in North America to uncover dinosaur remains (846).

 

Joseph Leidy (US) reported the findings by John Estaugh Hopkins (US), in 1838, and William Parker Foulke (US), in 1858, of the first relatively complete dinosaur skeleton. Leidy named this creature found in New Jersey, Hadrosaurus foulkii (847).

 

Henry Fairfield Osborn (US) designated the skull and claw (which he assumed to come from the hand) from a fossil collected in Mongolia as the type specimen of a new genus, Velociraptor. This name is derived from the Latin words velox ('swift') and raptor ('robber' or 'plunderer') and refers to the animal's cursorial nature and carnivorous diet. Osborn named the type species V. mongoliensis for its country of origin (1026).

Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska (PL) and Rinchen Barsbold (MN), with a team and Mongolian paleontologists, discovered the entwined skeletons of a Protoceratops and a juvenile Velociraptor in the Gobi Desert, most likely locked in mortal combat (786). These are late Cretaceous animals.

 

Alyssa Bell (US) and Mike Everhart (US) found a Late Cretaceous (c. 86 M) fossil skeleton of Ichthyornis dispar in Russell County, North-central Kansas. This transitional bird fossil possessed anatomical features of both dinosaurs and birds (151).

 

Alcide Dessalines d’Orbigny (FR) is considered the founder of the science of micropaleobotany. His most important work was the founding of the science of stratigraphical paleontology based on observations of exposed fossil-bearing strata in the Paraná Basin of South America between 1826 and 1834. He studied small marine fossils, pollen, grain and spores found in sedimentary rocks for dating stages. Like his mentor Cuvier, he found that some fossils occurred only in certain layers of a geological formation. He used these fossils to subdivide what we today call the Jurassic into twenty-seven stratigraphic stages, each with its particular fossils (371; 372).

 

Jean Le Loeuff (FR) and Eric Buffetaut (FR) reported and named Variraptor mechinorum. This dinosaur was unearthed in France and is amazingly similar to the famous raptors of Jurassic Park (movie) lore. It lived during the Late Cretaceous period, about 70 million years ago, toward the end of the Mesozoic Era (826).

 

John R. Horner (US) reported discoveries in the late Cretaceous (Campanian) sediments of the Two Medicine Formation of western Montana indicating that some dinosaur species, like some modern species of birds and crocodiles, nested in colonies. This suggests that they may have moved about in a herd (701).

 

South African fishermen, in 1938, netted a coelacanth off the coast of South Africa. It was identified as belonging to a group or subclass of fishes known as the Crossopterygia, or lobe-finned fish, which passed the heyday of their evolutionary history many millions of years ago and were thought to be extinct. It was named Latimeria chalumnae to honor Miss Courtenay Latimer, a museum curator, in East London, South Africa. Almost immediately living specimens were filmed in their habitat (334; 1269; 1388).

 

c. 65 M

Wilhelm Philipp Schimper (DE), in 1874, recognized and named the Paleocene Epoch (65 M B.C.E.—54.9 M B.C.E.) of the Cenozoic Era based on a study of floral samples from the Paris Basin (1204).

The Palaeocene Epoch (meaning early dawn of the recent) starts both the Cenozoic Era and Tertiary Period some 65 million years ago and extends until 55 million years ago. Charles Lyell (GB) first used Tertiary as a period name (892). Following the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous Period, mammals became the dominant land-living life form. By the Palaeocene the North American continent had attained roughly its modern outline. The climate was much milder and more uniform than at present.

 

An enormous (200 km) crater form structure just north of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico is most likely the dino killing event that ended the Cretaceous. Luis Walter Alvarez (US), Walter Alvarez (US), Frank Asarco (US) and Helen Michel (US) in 1978 found convincing physical and chemical evidence that the great extinctions, which terminated the age of the dinosaurs, were related to the high-speed impact on Earth of a great asteroid estimated to have been about 10 km in diameter. The element of catastrophe was thus introduced into the studies of the evolution of life forms (56-58).

Alan K. Hildebrand (US), Glen T. Penfield (US), David A. King (US), Mark Pilkington (US), Z. Antonio Cam Argo (MX), Stein B. Jacobsen (US), and William V. Boynton (US) discovered the Chicxulub crater in the Yucatán Peninsula, supporting the asteroid impact theory first suggested in 1980 (671). See, Hildebrand, 1991 and Alvarez 1980.

 

It was during the Palaeocene that some common plant forms first appeared: the pines, the cacti, and the palms.

During the Palaeocene, birds began to diversify and occupy new niches. Most bird types had appeared by the middle Cenozoic, including representatives of perching birds, cranes, hawks, pelicans, herons, owls, ducks, pigeons, loons, and woodpeckers.

Rocks bearing fossils from this epoch include: The Sentinel Butte Formation, Western U.S.; the Black Mingo Formation, S. Canada; and the Aquila Formation, Eastern U.S.

 

c. 56-23 M

Charles William Andrews (GB) and Hugh John Llewellyn Beadnell (GB), in 1900, discovered numerous early higher primate fossils in the Fayum Depression region east of Cairo, Egypt. These Eocene and Oligocene fossils include protomonkeys believed to be ancestral to Old World monkeys and thus in the lineage to hominids. Aegyptopithecus is the best known of the propliopithecids from the Fayum, about the size of a cat. Aegyptopithecus is often placed at the base of the Catarrhine radiation (63-65; 147).

 

c. 54.9 M

The Eocene Epoch (meaning dawn of the recent), named by Charles Lyell (GB), encompasses that time between approximately 55 million years ago and 34 million years ago (892). It was during the Eocene that mammals took over the large-animal niches previously held by the dinosaurs. The Eocene was a time of warm climate and significant volcanism in the western U.S. and central Mexico. Sea levels were high, and much of the Southeastern United States was submerged. Europe was separated from Asia by a narrow strait or sea. By the Early Eocene, practically all the modern eutherian (placental) mammal orders were present.

As commonplace as it seems now, it wasn't until the Early Eocene that grasses developed, and with them a host of grass-living animals. With new growth originating near the root, rather than at the tip of the plant, grasses are wonderfully protected from otherwise catastrophic damage caused by grazing and fire. They quickly regenerate and create a renewable resource for plant-eaters. Grass plains developed in those areas frequently ravaged by fire (from lightning strikes, for instance), and animals rapidly evolved to utilize this new environment.

Rocks rich in fossils from this epoch include: The Mussel Oil Shale, Germany; the Baltic amber; and the Green River Formation, Western U.S. The Green River Formation, found in various western states, provides wonderful and prolific samples of fossils. The area around Kemmerer, Wyoming provides world-class fish fossils of the Eocene age.

 

Kenneth A. Farley (US), Alessandro Montana (IT), Eugene M. Shoemaker (US), and Carolyn Shoemaker (US) presented geochemical evidence from a rock quarry in Northern Italy that a shower of comets hit Earth about 36 million years ago.

The findings not only account for the huge craters at Popayan in Siberia and at Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, but posit that they were but a tiny fraction of the comets active over a period of two or three million years during the late Eocene period (505).

 

c. 32.8 M

The Oligocene Epoch (meaning few recent), named by Heinrich Ernst Bearish (DE), extended from 32.8 million years ago until 24.6 million years ago, and was a time of great significance in the history of American mammals (176). Mammals, which blossomed with the disappearance of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous, expanded both in range and variety during this epoch. The Oligocene is marked by the start of a generalized cooling, which culminated in the Ice Ages of the Pleistocene, but it remained relatively warmer than today. The time also saw a reintroduction of volcanism.

The first evidence for Australian marsupials comes from Late Oligocene rocks in Tasmania, although these animals may have already been here for a long time. See, K. A. Cormack, 135 M.

Rocks bearing fossils from this epoch include: the White River Formation, South Dakota; the Dominican Republic amber; and the Florissant Fossil Beds, Colorado.

 

c. 30 M

Elwyn LaVerne Simons (US) announced the discovery of the 30,000,000-year-old skull of an ape, which he names Aegyptopithecus. Aegyptopithecus is at this time the earliest known primate that is a part of the hominid line, the line that eventually led to Homo sapiens (1264).

 

Max Schlosser (DE) conducted further excavations of Oligocene primate remains from the Fayum of Egypt (1205).

 

c. 24.6 M

The Miocene Epoch (meaning moderately recent), named by Charles Lyell (GB), extended from approximately 24.6 million years ago until 5.1 million years ago (892). It was during the Miocene that a new ecological niche was filled, as grazing animals became common after the rise of grasses in the Oligocene. Both the grazers and their associated predators became fleet of foot to maneuver around the relatively protection-free grass plains.

Rocks bearing fossils from this epoch include: the Calvert Formation, Maryland; and the Agate Springs Fossil Beds, Nebraska.

 

George Edward Lewis (US) found the first Ramapithecus (Ramapithecus brevirostris), the earliest known hominid fossil, in deposits in the Siwalik Hills of Northern India (856). It was alive during the Miocene epoch.

 

c. 21 M

In Western Nebraska the Niobrara River, now a mere trickle, was cutting valleys and laying down sand bars. The sediments carried by the river turned to rock over time, and the layer is now known as the Harrison Formation. A severe multi-year drought struck the region at some point, concentrating the animals around the few remaining waterholes. Animals died by the thousands. When, eventually, the rains reappeared, the carcasses of the animals were swept downstream, congregating in river bends. The mass of bones was buried in the sand, to be discovered years later (1878) by roaming explorers. Two small hills still hold the remains of thousands of animals that died many years ago.

 

c. 16 M

Arthur Tindell Hopwood (GB), in 1931, discovered the fossils of three hominids near Lake Victoria, Africa. He would name them Proconsul in 1933 (697; 698). This was the oldest known ape found up to that time.

Wilfred E. Le Gross Clark (GB) and Louis Seymour Bizet Leakey (GB-KE), reported on a hominid skull and jaw found by Mary Douglas Nicola Leakey (GB-KE), in 1948, in Miocene deposits on Rising Island in Lake Victoria, Western Kenya. It was an excellent sample of Proconsul africanus (sometimes called Dryopithicus africanus or "woodland ape"). The specimen is aged approximately 16 M and a candidate for the distant ancestor from which all modern species of apes and all hominids—human beings included—evolved (825; 834).

 

c. 14 M

Louis Seymour Bizet Leakey (GB-KE), in 1961, discovered the upper jawbone of Kenyapithecus wicker (Rangwapithecus wicker) in 14 M deposits in Kenya (832).

 

c. 6.5 M

Michel Brunet (FR), Franck Guy (FR), David Pilbeam (FR), Hassan Taisso Mackaye (TD), Andossa Likius (FR), Djimdoumalbaye Amount (TD), Alain Beauvilain (FR), Cécile Blondel (FR), Hervey Bocherens (FR), Jean-Renaud Rotisserie (FR), Louis De Bonis (FR), Yves Coppers (FR), Jean Déjà (FR), Christiane Denys (FR), Philippe Duringer (FR), Véra Eisenmann (FR), Gongdibé Fanon (TD), Pierre Front (FR), Denis Geraads (FR), Thomas Lehmann (FR), Fabrice Lihoreau (FR), Antoine Louchart (FR), Adoum Mahatma (TD), Gildas Merceron (FR), Guy Mouchelin (FR), Olga Otero (FR), Pablo Pelaez Campomanes (ES), Marcia Ponce De Leon (CH), Jean-Claude Rage (FR), Michel Sapanet (FR), Mathieu Schuster (FR), Jean Sure (FR), Pascal Tansy (FR), Xavier Valentine (FR), Patrick Vignaud (FR), Laurent Viriot (FR), Antoine Jazz (FR) and Christophe Zollikofer (CH) discovered the skull of Sahelanthropus tchadensis in the Sahel region of Chad. The skull possesses both human and ape-like characteristics, with a chimpanzee-sized braincase, teeth that are human-like, and a foramen magnum placed further back than in a chimpanzee or gorilla. Based on the location of the foramen magnum, the French team suggested that this creature was bipedal (246).

 

c. 6 M

Brigitte Senut (FR), Martin Pickford (FR), Dominique Gommery (FR), Pierre Mein (FR), Kiptalam Cheboi (KE), and Yves Coppers (FR) of The Kenya Paleontology Expedition (KPE) reported in December 2000 the discovery of what is almost certainly a new species of hominid at Kalsomine in Kenya's Baring district. It is called Orrorin tugenensis, meaning original man from the Tugen Hills. The remains, found in 6 M rocks, include a left femur, pieces of jaw with teeth, isolated upper and lower teeth, arm bones, and a finger bone. Preliminary analyses suggest that this hominid, the size of a chimpanzee, was an agile climber and that it walked on two legs when on the ground. The tentative date of 6 M indicates a date very close to the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, although this date may now need to be pushed back (1078; 1237; 1238).

 

c. 5.8 M

Yohannes Haile-Selassie (US) reported new hominid specimens from the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia that date to 5.2-5.8 M and are associated with a wooded paleoenvironment. These Late Miocene fossils are assigned to the hominid genus Ardipithecus and represent some of the earliest definitive evidence of the hominid clad (623). Note: Ardipithecus kadabba is the holotype.

 

Edward Smith Deevey, Jr. (US) reviewed the biogeography of the Pleistocene (2.58 M-11.7 K) in an influential synthesis of existing knowledge. He coordinated climatic changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean (433).

 

Edouard Lartet (FR) and Henry Christy (GB), in 1864, discovered an engraved mammoth tusk at La Madeleine, France showing a drawing of a woolly mammoth. This piece gave strong evidence that man coexisted with Pleistocene animals (1180).

 

c. 5.1 M

The Pliocene Epoch (meaning very recent), named by Charles Lyell (GB), comprises a relatively short time between 5.1 and 2 M, and is the last epoch of the Tertiary Period (892). The Pliocene saw general climatic cooling, with subtropical regions retreating equatorially. During this time, India collided with Asia and gave rise to the Himalaya Mountains. Significant in the fossil record of the Pliocene are the early hominid remains from Africa. Also, the North American three-toed horse Hipparion crossed the Bering Strait land bridge and entered Asia and Europe, while mastodons reversed the passage and entered the Americas. The hominid fossil record in Africa begins about 4 million years ago in the Early Pliocene, with representatives of the genus Australopithecus from Ethiopia and Tanzania. The australopithecine Homo hails was one of the later examples, surviving into the Early Pleistocene. Homo erectus (upright man) arose about two million years ago in the Pleistocene, giving rise to our own genus.

Rocks bearing fossils from this epoch include: the Hemphill Beds, Texas, US; Lake Turkana, Africa; Hadar, Africa; and Aetolia, Africa.

 

Elaine Morgan (US) proposed that man descended from apes that adapted to an aquatic environment then returned to a terrestrial lifestyle. Man is seen as retaining aquatic adaptations such as weeping, loss of body hair, bipedalism, face-to-face copulation, and the diving reflex (976).

 

Juan-Bautista Bru de Ramon (ES) described and mounted the first relatively accurate fossil reconstruction of an extinct mammal he called Megatherium (big beast); it was from Paraguay in South America. Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (FR) classified it as a giant sloth (369; 566). Note: Megatherium lived from the early Pliocene through the end of the Pleistocene.

 

Vincent Sarich (US) and Allan C. Wilson (NZ-US) shook the human family tree when they claimed, based on immunological comparisons of serum albumens, that humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas had a common ancestor 5 M (1189).

 

c. 4.4 M

Tim D. White (US), Gen Suwa (ET), and Berhane Asfaw (ET) discovered hominid fossil remains of Ardipithecus ramidus at Aramis in Ethiopia dated to 4.4 M. Most remains are skull fragments. Indirect evidence suggests that it was possibly bipedal, and that some individuals were about 122 cm (4'0") tall (1448; 1449).

 

c. 4.2 M

Meave G. Leakey (GB-KE), Craig S. Feibel (US), Ian McDougall (AU), Carol Ward (US) and Alan Cyril Walker (GB-US) discovered Australopithecus anamensis at Kanapoi on the shore of Lake Turkana, Northern Kenya. The material consists of nine hominid dental, cranial and post-cranial specimens from Kanapoi, Kenya, and 12 specimens from Allis Bay, Kenya. Anamnesis existed between 4.2 and 3.9 M, and has a mixture of primitive features in the skull, and advanced features in the body (836; 837).

 

Bryan Patterson (US) and William W. Howells (US), in 1965, discovered but did not identify Australopithecus anamensis from a site on the west side of Lake Turkana in Kenya (1063). Some anthropologists regard this skeleton as exhibiting the earliest ‘clear evidence’ for bipedalism.

 

c. 4 M

John Desmond Clark (US), Berhane Asfaw (US), Getafe Assegai (ET), Jack W.K. Harris (US), Hero Kurashina (GU), Robert C. Walter (CA), Tim D. White (US), and Martin A.J. Williams (AU), in 1981, discovered fossil remains of Australopithecus sp., dated to 3.5 -4.0 M. These remains are the earliest evidence of Australopithecus from anywhere in the world and the earliest evidence of hominid bipedalism yet discovered (317).

 

Katherine Coffing (US), Craig S. Feeble (US), Maeve G. Leakey (GB-KE), and Alan Cyril Walker (US) described four-million-year-old hominids from East Lake Turkana, Kenya (329).

 

c. 3.8 M

Simon Easteal (AU) and Genevieve Herbert (AU) presented molecular evidence that humans and chimpanzees diverged 4.0-3.6 M. This post-dates the occurrence of Ardipithecus ramidus and the earliest occurrence of Australopithecus afarensis, suggesting that the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees was bipedal, and that the trait has been lost in chimpanzees but retained in humans (473).

 

c. 3.5 M

Maeve G. Leakey (GB-KE), Fred Spoor (GB), Frank H. Brown (US), Patrick N. Gathogo (US), Christopher Kiarie (KE), Louise N. Leakey (KE), and Ian McDougall (AU) announced the discovery of the hominid Kenyanthropus platypus identified from a partial skull found on the western shore of Lake Turkana in Northern Kenya. It is dated at 3.5 M. The size of the skull is similar to Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus, and has a large, flat face and small teeth (838). Note: first described by Justus Erus

 

c. 3.26 M

Robert A. Broom (ZA) discovered the fossil remains of Australopithecus transvaalensis (Homo africanus) within Sterkfontein dolomitic limestone cave deposits, northwest of Krugersdorp, near Johannesburg, Transvaal, Republic of South Africa (234; 235). It was dated at c. 3.26 M.

 

c. 2.9-3.0 M

F. Clark Howell (US), Lynn S. Fichter (US), Gerald G. Eck (US), and Bernard A. Wood (US) found fossil remains of Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus boisei, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus in the lower basin of the Omo River, Southwest Ethiopia (706-709).

Maurice Taieb (FR), Yves Coppers (FR), Donald Carl Johanson (US), Jon Kalb (US), and Raymond Bonnefille (FR) discovered and described fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis from the Hadar site in the Afar depression in the west central sedimentary basin, northeast of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (747; 1320-1322). These specimens were dated to c. 2.9-3.0 M.

Donald Carl Johanson (US), Maurice Taieb (FR), Tim D. White (US), and Yves Coppers (FR) discovered a female fossil hominid at Hadar, Ethiopia (Australopithecus afarensis) and named her Lucy. The discovery of Lucy established that hominids walked upright before developing large brains, overturning many long-held beliefs about hominid evolution. Australopithecus afarensis is considered to be the first human, but this is now being challenged by Maeve G. Leakey’s discovery of Kenyanthropus in 2001 (746; 749). Note: Lucy was named for the girl in Elton John’s current musical hit, “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.”

Donald Carl Johanson (US) and Tim D. White (US) discovered more specimens of Australopithecus afarensis (748). Australopithecus afarensis had an apelike face with a low forehead, a bony ridge over the eyes, a flat nose, and no chin. They had protruding jaws with large back teeth. Cranial capacity varied from about 375 to 550 cc. The skull is similar to that of a chimpanzee, except for the more humanlike teeth. The canine teeth are much smaller than those of modern apes, but larger and more pointed than those of humans, and the shape of the jaw is between the rectangular shape of apes and the parabolic shape of humans. However, their pelvis and leg bones closely resemble those of modern man, and leave no doubt that they were bipedal (although adapted to walking rather than running (745).

Maeve G. Leakey (GB-KE) and Richard L. Hay (US) reported hominid footprints preserved in Pliocene ash deposits in the Laetolil Beds at Aetolia, Northern Tanzania. These footprints, discovered by the geochemist Paul I. Abell (US) in 1978, constitute the earliest evidence of bipedalism in the hominid fossil record. This hominid was very likely Australopithecus afarensis (835).

Carol V. Ward (US), William H. Kimble (US) and Donald Carl Johanson (US) found fossil feet confirming that the A. afarensis foot was functionally like that of modern humans and support the hypothesis that this species was a committed terrestrial biped (1430).

Zeresenay Alemseged (DE), Fred Spoor (GB), William H. Kimbel (US), René Bobe (US), Denis Geraads (FR), Denné Reed (US) and Jonathan G. Wynn (GB-US) described a well-preserved 3.3-million-year-old juvenile partial skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis discovered in the Dikika research area of Ethiopia (Dikika baby). The skull of the approximately three-year-old presumed female shows that most features diagnostic of the species are evident even at this early stage of development. The find includes many previously unknown skeletal elements from the Pliocene hominin record, including a hyoid bone that has a typical African ape morphology. The foot and other evidence from the lower limb provide clear evidence for bipedal locomotion, but the gorilla-like scapula and long and curved manual phalanges raise new questions about the importance of arboreal behaviour in the A. afarensis locomotor repertoire (45).

 

Michel Brunet (FR), Alain Beauvilain (FR), Yves Coppers (FR), Emile Heinz (FR), Aladji H. Mouthy (FR), and David Roger Pilbeam (US) discovered part of a fossilized jaw at Koru Toro, Chad (2,400 km west of the Eastern Rift Valley), which closely resembles that of Australopithecus afarensis. They named it Australopithecus bahrelghazali and dated it to 3.3 to 3 M. (244; 245).

 

c. 2.61 M

Jonathan Leakey (KE), Phillip V. Tobias (ZA), and John R. Napier (GB) found several fossilized bone fragments of a Homo habilis skull at Olduvai Gorge in Kenya. Leakey’s wife Meave carefully assembled the fragments to make a nearly complete skull, minus the lower jaw. The skull was named KNMER 1470 for its registration at the Kenya National Museum in East Rudolf. Potassium argon dating placed it at 2.61 M (831; 839).

Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (GB-KE), Phillip V. Tobias (ZA), and John R. Napier (GB) proposed that KNMER 1470 be designated as a new species, Homo habilis (833).

Valerii P. Alexeev (RU) described KNMER 1470 as Pithecanthropus rudolfensis, (47). The name was subsequently changed to Homo rudolfensis.

 

c. 2.5 M

Raymond Arthur Dart (AU-ZA) found in material from a limestone quarry at Taung (place of the lion), South Africa a fossil cast of the inside of a primate skull which fitted into another lump of stone which possibly contained a face. It took Dart about a month to remove enough stone to reveal the face and jaw of a young fossil primate, which would be nicknamed the Taung baby. Dart considered the fossil “an extinct race of apes intermediate between living anthropoids and man.” He described it, named it Australopithecus africanus (Southern ape from Africa), and dated it to between 3 and 2.3 M (381). It was placed in early Pleistocene or late Pliocene.

Australopithecus africanus existed between 3 M and 2 M. It is similar to A. afarensis, and was also bipedal, but body size was slightly greater. Brain size may also have been slightly larger, ranging between 420 and 500 cc. This is a little larger than chimp brains (despite a similar body size), but still not advanced in the areas necessary for speech. The back teeth were a little larger than in A. afarensis. Although the teeth and jaws of A. africanus are much larger than those of humans, they are far more similar to human teeth than to those of apes. The shape of the jaw is fully parabolic, like that of humans, and the size of the canine teeth is reduced compared to A. afarensis (329; 745).

 

Berhane Asfaw (ET), Tim D. White (US), C. Owen Lovejoy (US), Bruce Latimer (US), Scott Simpson (US), and Gen Suwa (ET) discovered the hominid Australopithecus garhi near the village of Bouri, in the Afar region of Ethiopia. This 2.5 M species is known from a partial skull. The skull differs from previous australopithecine species in the combination of its features, notably the extremely large size of its teeth, especially the rear ones, and primitive skull morphology. Some nearby skeletal remains may belong to the same species. They show a humanlike ratio of the humerus and femur, but an apelike ratio of the lower and upper arm. This small-brained, large-toothed hominid was found near antelope bones that had been butchered by stone tools (95). Note: Elizabeth Culotta (US) named this hominid (366).

 

Camille Arambourg (FR) and Yves Coppens (FR) discovered Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus; Australopithecus aethiopicus; Paranthropus aethiopicus in 1967 at a site named Koobi Fora. Their work was largely ignored because of the scarcity of fossils found (73; 74). It has been dated to 2.5 M.

Alan Cyril Walker (US), Richard Erskine Frere Leakey (KE), John Michael Harris (GB), and Frank H. Brown (US) also discovered the hominid Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus; Australopithecus aethiopicus; Paranthropus aethiopicus, WT 17000, west of Lake Turkana in Kenya. This species is known from one major specimen, the Black Skull, and a few other minor specimens that may belong to the same species that existed between 2.6 M and 2.3 M. It may be an ancestor of robustus and boisei, but it has a baffling mixture of primitive and advanced traits. The brain size is very small, at 410 cc, and parts of the skull, particularly the hind portions, are very primitive, most resembling A. afarensis. Other characteristics, like the massiveness of the face, jaws and single tooth found, and the largest sagittal crest in any known hominid, are more reminiscent of A. boisei (1421).

 

Sileshi Semaw (ET), Paul R. Renne (US), John W.K. Harris (US), Craig S. Feibel (US), Ray L. Bernor (US), Nardos Fesseka (ET), and Kenneth Mowbray (US) found 2.5 - 2.6 M. stone tools in Gona, Ethiopia (1229).

 

c. 2 M

The Pleistocene Epoch (meaning most recent) represents that time in our Earth's history from approximately 2 M until about 10 K. During this time, glaciers advanced and receded across the northern quarter of the globe four times. At its maximum, the ice mass covered about three times its current extent and reached heights of 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). With so much water trapped as ice, sea levels dropped to about 430 feet (130 m) below current levels. The glacial advances may have been due to continental plate movements resulting in altered water circulation, solar fluctuations, or to Milankovitch cycles (a combination of changes in the Earth's orbit and degree and direction of tilt of the Earth).

Sites for fossils from this epoch include: Rancho la Brea Tar Seeps (California), the Solo River (Java), and the Olduvai Gorge (Africa).

The la Brea Tar Pits are not really pits at all, rather they are naturally occurring petroleum seeps near present-day Los Angeles, California. Animals would occasionally become trapped in the seep only to be discovered millennia later by roving fossil hunters. Larger animals found at la Brea include mammoths, saber tooth cats, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, and various birds.

Mastodons were large, elephant-like animals that roamed throughout various parts of North American during the Pleistocene. In Michigan, they are most commonly found in the southern half of the Lower Peninsula. A wide and extensive glacial river system may have prevented them from moving north. Mastodons were browsing animals, feeding on shoots and leaves. They thrived in the cool glacial climate. The mastodon's fate may have been directly tied to the influx of humans into the region. Recent findings show that mastodons were actively hunted and their carcasses submerged for storage and preservation.

 

Jacques Boucher de Crèvecoeur de Perthes (FR) found near Abbeville, France, the first evidence of Stone Age man. He determined that they were from the Pleistocene epoch. De Perthes was the first to develop the idea that prehistory could be measured on the basis of periods of geologic time (202; 203).

 

c. 1.75 M

Robert A. Broom (ZA) reported on and named the discovery of Australopithecus robustus; Paranthropus robustus (formerly Parathrops crassidens) by a schoolboy, Gert Terblanche, in 1938 at Kromdraai in South Africa. It had a body like that of A. africanus, but a larger and more robust skull and teeth. It existed between 2-1.5 M. The massive face is flat or dished, with no forehead and large brow ridges. It has relatively small front teeth, but massive grinding teeth in a large lower jaw. Most specimens have sagittal crests. Its diet would have been mostly coarse, tough food that needed a lot of chewing. The average brain size is about 530 cc. Bones excavated with robustus skeletons indicate that they may have been used as digging tools (236).

 

Mary Douglas Nicol Leakey (GB-KE) found a hominid skull belonging to the ultra robust Australopithecus boisei; Zinjanthropus boisei at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (830). Note: Australopithecus boisei existed between 2.1 and 1.1 M. It was similar to robustus, but the face and cheek teeth were even more massive, some molars being up to 2 cm across. The brain size is very similar to robustus, about 530 cc. A few experts consider boisei and robustus to be variants of the same species.

 

c. 1.7 M

Leo Gabunia (GE), Abesalom Vekua (GE), David Lordkipanidze (GE), Carl C. Swisher, III (US), Reid Ferring (US), Antje Justus (DE), Medea Nioradze (GE), Merab Tvalchrelidze (GE), Susan C. Antón (US), Gerhard Bosinski (DE), Olaf Jöris (DE), Marie-A. de Lumley (FR), Givi Majsuradze (GE), and Aleksander Mouskhelishvili (GE) at the site of Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgia uncovered two partial early Pleistocene hominid crania. Data from Dmanisi all indicate an earliest Pleistocene age of about 1.7 M years. In contrast with Pleistocene hominids (Homo erectus) from Western Europe and Eastern Asia, they show clear African affinity and may represent the species that first migrated out of Africa (554).

 

c. 1.6 M

The hominid Homo erectus (upright man) has several synonyms, including: Sinanthropus pekinensis, Pithecanthropus pekinenses, Pithecanthropus erectus, Homo ergaster, Peking man, Java man, and Turkana boy (Narikotome boy).

There is evidence that erectus was the first hominid to radiate out of Africa, probably used fire, and made stone tools more sophisticated than those of Homo habilis.

Marie Eugène François Thomas Dubois (NL) found a fossil skullcap, teeth, and femur in the Javan town of Trinil. He insisted that these fossils belonged to the same type individual, a missing link between humans and apes (465-467). Opposition to his claim remained widespread and many doubted that the bones all belonged to the same individual. He adopted the name Anthropithecus erectus then changed it to Pithecanthropus, which had been coined earlier by the German zoologist Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel; Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Häcke; Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Heckel, calling his discoveries Pithecanthropus erectus (upright ape-man) (1341). This specimen of Homo erectus is commonly called Java man.

Richard Erskine Frere Leakey (KE) reported on Bernard Ngeneo’s (KE) discovery of Homo ergaster; Homo erectus, KNMER 3733, at Koobi Fora in Kenya (840).

Colin P. Groves (AU) and Vratislav Mazák (CZ) proposed the name Homo ergaster (man the workman) (615).

Kamoya Kimeu (KE) discovered Turkana boy (Narikotome boy), a Homo ergaster; Homo erectus, KNMWT 15000, at Nariokotome near Lake Turkana in Kenya, in 1984 (238; 841; 842; 1420). This skeleton was dated at 1.6 M. The teeth indicated that he was 8-9 years old. He weighed 48 kg with a cranial capacity of 880 cc.

Michael H. Day (GB) reported the fossil remains of a Homo erectus found on the west side of Lake Turkana, Northern Kenya. It was dated to 1.6 M (385).

Davidson Black (CA) coined the name Sinanthropus pekinensis (Oriental Man from Peking), for what was popularly called Peking man (185; 186). Note: Peking Man is a group of fossil specimens of Homo erectus, dated from roughly 0.75 M years.

Franz Weidenreich (DE-US) and Lucile Swan (DE) prepared the original reconstruction of Sinanthropus pekinensis from the fossil remains of several different individuals found in the caves at Zhoukoudian, China (1439; 1440). All of the skullcaps had one thing in common, a hole through the top or back of the skull. It was apparent to the researchers that the holes existed to suck out the brains—all the "individuals" were victims of cannibalism.

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (FR), a Jesuit priest, also did early work on Peking man, a Homo erectus, also known as Pithecanthropus pekinenses and Sinanthropus pekinensis (1328; 1329).

Mr. Towikromo (ID) discovered another Homo erectus, Sangiran17, in 1969 in Java, Indonesia that was first described in 1971 by Sastrohamidjojo Sartono (ID) as Pithecanthropus erectus (1191). Modern paleontologists consider this Java man to be Homo erectus.

Guanjun Shen (CN), Xing Gao (CN), Bin Gao (CN), and Darryl E. Granger (US) report 26Al/10Be burial dating of quartz sediments and artifacts from the lower strata of Locality 1 in the southwestern suburb of Beijing, China, where early representatives of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus were discovered. The quartz was dated in the range of 0.77±0.08 M. These ages are substantially older than previously supposed and may imply early hominin’s presence at the site in Northern China through a relatively mild glacial period (1257). See, Peking man above.

 

c. 1.29 M

Dietrich Mania (DE), in 1972, discovered the first fossil skull fragment of Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis; Homo erectus; Homo sapiens near Bilzingsleben in Central Germany (908). This fragment and those subsequently discovered have been dated to the Middle Pleistocene; c. 1.29 M.

 

Fritz Berckhemer (DE) found a fossil skull of a young female in the Sigrist gravel pit north of Stuttgart, Germany and gave it to Karl Sigrist (164; 165). This, so called, Steinheim skull can be considered a Homo erectus/Homo sapiens transitional form from the Middle Pleistocene—c. 1.3 M.

 

c. 1 M- 500 K B.C.E.

Francoise Jouy-Avantin (FR), Claude Combes (FR), Henry de Lumley (FR), Jean-Claude Miskovsky (FR), and Helene Mone (FR) discovered dicrocoelid (liver-fluke) eggs in animal coprolites collected in an archeological layer dated earlier than 550 K from the Caune de l'Arago cave (Tautavel, Pyrenees-Orientales, France). It is the first trematode egg finding in an isolated coprolite from the Middle Pleistocene (755).

 

Otto Schoetensack (DE) described and named archaic forms of Homo sapiens uncovered by gravel pit workers in 1907 near Heidelberg, Germany. Estimated age is between 400 K and 700 K years. This find consisted of a lower jaw with a receding chin and all its teeth. The jaw is extremely large and robust, like that of Homo erectus, but the teeth are at the small end of the erectus range. They were named Homo heidelbergensis (1209).

 

Arthur Smith Woodward (GB) described a more complete skull from the Broken Hill Mine, Kabwe, Zambia and named it Homo rhodesiensis; Homo sapiens rhodesiensis (1484). It is dated at late Middle Pleistocene—c. 300 K .

 

Émile Ennouchi (FR) reported the discovery of fossil remains of archaic Homo sapiens sapiens at Jebel Ighoud southeast of Safi, Morocco (482; 483). The fragments have been dated to c. 500 K .

Tanya M. Smith (DE), Paul Tafforeau (FR), Donald J. Reid (GB),Rainer Grün (AU), Stephen Eggins (AU), Mohamed Boutakiout (MA), and Jean-Jacques Hublin (DE) provided evidence from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco for the earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens dated at 160 K (1272).

Daniel Richter (DE), Rainer Grün (AU), Renaud Joannes-Boyau (AU), Teresa E. Steele (DE), Fethi Amani (MA), Mathieu Rué (FR), Paul Fernandes (FR), Jean-Paul Raynal (DE), Denis Geraads (DE), Abdelouahed Ben-Ncer (MC), Jean-Jacques Hublin (DE), and Shannon P. McPherron (DE) reported, "the ages, determined by thermoluminescence dating, of fire-heated flint artefacts obtained from new excavations at the Middle Stone Age site of Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, which are directly associated with newly discovered remains of Homo sapiens. A weighted average age places these Middle Stone Age artefacts and fossils at 315 ± 34 thousand years ago. Support is obtained through the recalculated uranium series with electron spin resonance date of 286 ± 32 thousand years ago for a tooth from the Irhoud 3 hominin mandible. These ages are also consistent with the faunal and microfaunal assemblages and almost double the previous age estimates for the lower part of the deposits. The north African site of Jebel Irhoud contains one of the earliest directly dated Middle Stone Age assemblages, and its associated human remains are the oldest reported for Homo sapiens. The emergence of our species and of the Middle Stone Age appear to be close in time, and these data suggest a larger scale, potentially pan-African, origin for both." (1148)

 

Marius Pièry (FR), Julien Roshem (FR), and Vilhelm Moller-Christensen (DK) gave accounts of Stone Age hominid skeletons diagnosed as exhibiting signs of tubercular damage. Evidence of pulmonary tuberculosis remains but, in the nature of the case, it is meager (969; 1080).

 

c. 780 K B.C.E.

José M. Bermúdez de Castro (ES), Juan Luis Arsuaga (ES), Eudald Carbonell (ES), Antonio Rosas (ES), Ignacio Martinez (ES), and Marina Mosquera (ES) reported Homo fossils in Spain which are the oldest confirmed European hominids. It is not yet clear what species they belong to, although the discoverers have named them Homo antecessor (170).

 

c. 600 K B.C.E.

Camille Arambourg (FR) and Robert Hoffstetter (FR) discovered Homo erectus mandibles with teeth at Ternifine, near the village of Palikao, east of Mascara, Oran, Algeria (72; 75). Note: They were dated to c. 600 K.

 

c. 450 K B.C.E.

Henry de Lumley (FR) discovered the earliest human remains of Homo erectus (upright man) from Europe. Dated at c. 450 K, they were unearthed from the Caune de l'Arago cave (Tautavel, Pyrenees-Orientales, France) in 1971 (1114; 1470).

 

c. 400 K B.C.E.

Jean-Jacques Jaeger (FR) and M. Abdeslem Dakka (MA), in 1971, discovered fossil remains of Homo erectus near Rabat, Morocco (735; 736). Note: It was dated to 400 K.

 

Petros Kokkoros (GR) and Antonis Kanellis (GR) reported on the fossil remains of a Homo erectus; Homo erectus petraloniensis from near Petralona in Eastern Greece (794). Note: It is dated at 350-400 K.

 

c. 300 K B.C.E.

Henry de Lumley (FR), in the south of France at Terra Amata, found red, purple, yellow, and brown ochre associated with Acheulian tools along with lumps of the ochre showing signs of wear (416; 1168). Tribal peoples alive today use ochre to treat animal skins, as an insect repellent, to staunch bleeding, and as protection from the sun. Ochre may have been one of the first medicaments used by primitive man.

 

Arthur Smith Woodward (GB) described a skull from the Broken Hill Mine, Kabwe, Zambia and named it Homo rhodesiensis; Homo sapiens rhodesiensis (1484). Note: It is dated at late Middle Pleistocene—c. 300 K.

 

c. 260 K B.C.E.

Michael R. Waters (US), Steve L. Forman (US), and James M. Pierson (US) found Lower Paleolithic human artifacts at Diring Yuriakh, an archaeological site in Central Siberia. Thermoluminescence age estimates from eolian sediments indicate that the cultural horizon is greater than 260 K years old. Diring Yuriakh is an order of magnitude older than documented Paleolithic sites in Siberia and is important for understanding the timing of human expansion into the far north, early adaptations to cold climates, and the peopling of the Americas (1433).

 

c. 250 K B.C.E.

Rebecca L. Cann (US), Mark Stoneking (US), Allan C. Wilson (NZ), Linda Vigilant (US), Henry C. Harpending (US), Kristen Hawkes (US), Alan R. Templeton (US), S. Blair Hedges (US), Sudhir Kumar (US), and Koichiro Tamura (US) proposed that all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) types in contemporary humans stems from a common female ancestor present in an African population extant between 164 K and 247 K, i.e., a mitochondrial Eve. All the populations examined except the African population have multiple origins, implying that each area was colonized repeatedly. These results support and extend the African origin hypothesis of human mtDNA evolution (268; 649; 1332; 1392).

 

c. 225 K B.C.E.

Alvan T. Marston (GB) found (225 K) Homo sapiens fossil remains at Swanscombe, England (928). This specimen is sometimes referred to as Swanscombe Man.

 

c. 188 K B.C.E.

Michael F. Hammer (US) reported that the male-specific portion of the Y chromosome is especially useful for studies of human origins. Using such analysis he estimated the time back to a common ancestral human Y chromosome to be 188 K (629).

 

c. 185 K B.C.E.

Miklós Kretzoi (HU) and Lazlo Vertes (HU), in 1964, found a portion of the fossil remains of a specimen of Homo erectus; Homo sapiens (archaic) near the village of Vértesszöllös west of Budapest, Hungary (800). Note: The remains are dated at c. 185 K .

 

c. 150 K B.C.E.

Sarah A. Tishkoff (US), Andrew J. Pakstis (US), Mark Stoneking (US), Judith R. Kidd (US), Giovanni Destro-Bisol (US), Antic Sanjantila (FI), Ru Band Lu (US), Amos S. Deinard (US), Giorgio Sirugo (US), Trevor Jenkins (US), Kenneth K. Kidd (US), and Andrew G. Clark (US) presented human genomic evidence suggesting that about 150 K years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Eastern Africa (1353).

 

c. 125 K B.C.E.

William Buckland (GB) published an account of how ancient hyenas lived and fed, in Kirkdale cave near Kirkbymoorside in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, England. Bones in the cave included hippopotamus (the farthest north any such remains have been found), elephant, and the remains of numerous cave hyenas and their coprolites. This is one of the first descriptions of living habits based on fossil evidence (251). Note: Material covering the bones dates them at c. 125 K. Note: The word archaeologists now use for fossil feces —coprolites — is a word invented by Buckland.

 

c. 130 K B.C.E.

Henry de Lumley (FR) and Marie-Antoinette de Lumley (FR), in 1964, discovered the fossil remains of a Homo erectus/Homo sapiens transitional form in the Verdouble valley in Southeastern France. The age of this fossil man (Aragon man) is uncertain at c. 130 K (417).

 

Karolyn Gorjanović-Kramberger (HR), between 1899 and 1905, discovered Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Homo neanderthalensis) fossils at a site near the Krapinica River at Krapina, Croatia. The find consisted of 13 men, women and children dated to c. 125 K (597-600).

 

Michael H. Day (GB) discovered fossil Homo sapiens dated at c. 130 K in the lower basin of the Omro River, Southwest Ethiopia (384).

 

c. 100 K B.C.E.

Rene Neville (FR), in 1933, was the first to excavate fossil Homo sapiens sapiens. The location was a cave site near Nazareth, Israel, on the southwest flank of Mount Qafzeh (994). Subsequently more human fossil remains have been discovered at this site, all dated c. 100 K.

 

Hans Reck (DE) discovered rich deposits of early mammalian fossils including Stone Age artifacts at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. Among other fossils he unearthed a fully human Late Pleistocene skeleton on the northern slope of the gorge; naming it Olduvai Hominid 1 (OH 1) (1129; 1130).

 

Max Ingman (SE), Henrick Kaessmann (CH), Svante Pääbo (DE), and Ulf Gyllensten (SE) suggested that all modern humans emerged from Africa within the past 100 K years and came from a breeding stock of no more than 10 K individuals. Their suggestion was based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA of fifty-three people (727).

 

"Along with fire, small objects of chipped flint represent primitive man's earliest steps in the direction of civilization. From the time of the arrival of the pre-Abevillian flint workers in Europe during the Second Interglacial Period, one hundred thousand years ago, each successive race had its peculiar technique of flint-chipping, its characteristic retouch, until the crude biface stone hand axe of the abevillians became the exquisite laurel-leaf points of Solutrean man (upper Paleolithic culture of central and southwestern France and parts of Iberia). In the late Stone Age (Neolithic Period) they were brought to a high point of specialization and polish, but in shape and intention they have remained the same throughout geologic space and time. Their employment in surgery by the ancient Egyptians, or in ritual circumcision by Hebrews in the desert, goes to show the unusual veneration in which they were held by these peoples on acount of their great antiquity. The most interesting point about these prehistoric flints, called "celts," is that they are to be found wherever traces of the existence of man are found, changing in shape during the successive interglacial and postglacial periods, but following his migrations over the surface of the earth.

If we are to understand the attitude of the primitive mind toward the diagnosis and treatment of disease we must recognize that medicine, in our sense, was only one phase of a set of magic or mystic processes designed to promote human well-being, such as averting the wrath of angered gods or evil spirits, fire-making, making rain, purifying streams or habitations, fertilizing soil, improving sexual potency or fecundity, preventing or removing blight of crops and epidemic diseases, and that these powers, originally united in one person, were he god, hero, king, sorcerer, priest, prophet, or physician, formed the savage's generic concept of "making medicine"…Thus primitive medicine, magic, and religion are inseparable, although, as in ancient Egypt or some parts of modern Melanesia, leechcraft may become specialized to the point of having a doctor for every disease. To primitive man the natural and the supernatural were thoroughly intertwined.

Disease, in particular, was regarded at first as an evil spirit or work of such a spirit to be appeased or cajoled, by burnt offerings and sacrifice. A further association of ideas led him to regard disease as something produced by a human enemy possessing supernatural powers, which he aimed to ward off by appropriate spells and sorcery, similar to those employed by the enemy himself. He frequently looked upon disease as the work of offended spirits of the dead. These spirits must be satisfied in some "logical" way.

Primitive man in widely separated countries easily got to know the most fatal arrow-poisons—curare, ouabain, veratrin, boundou—as well as the virtues of drugs, like opium, hashish, hemp, coca, cinchona, eucalyptus, sarsaparilla, acacia, kousso, copaiba, guaiac, jalap, podophyllin, or quassia.

Doubtless both prehistoric and early historic man discovered that many plants were useful as treatments for a variety of ailments. The early herbal apothecary was extensive.

The use of a soporific as a substitute for anesthesia goes back to remote antiquity, as symbolized in the twenty-first verse of the second chapter of Genesis: "And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof." From the soothing Egyptian nepenthe of the Odyssey, which Helen casts into the wine of Ulyssses, to the "samme de shinta" of the Talmud, the "bhang" of the Arabian Nights, or the "drowsy syrups" of Shakespeare's time, the soporific virtues of opium, Indian hemp (Cannabis indica), the mandrake (Atropa mandragora), henbane (Hyoscyamus), dewtry (Datura stramonium), hemlock (Conium), and lettuce (Lactucarium) appear to have been well known to the Orientals and the Greeks, and, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a mixture of some of these ingredients ("oleum de lateribus") was formally recommended for surgical anesthesia by the medieval masters, Nicolaus Salernitanus, Copho, Hugh of Lucca and his son Theodoric, in the form of a "spongia somnifera" or "confectio soporis" for inhalation. The use of natural antiseptics such as exterme dryness, smoke (creosote), honey, niter, and wine were long known to early man. In seeking an artificial paradise by means of narcotics and intoxicants like alcohol, opium, hashish, or mescal, priority certainly belongs to primitive man, to whom we owe such private luxuries as tea, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco. Medicine is curiously indebted to the non-medical man for many innovations." (567)

 

John Jacob Abel (US) and David I. Macht (US) showed that the ancient European belief in the venomous nature of the toad and the power of its dried skin to cure dropsy is explained by the two alkaloids, bufagin and epinephrin, which they isolated from the tropical Bufo agua. Bufagin has a marked diuretic action (14; 15).

 

c. 90 K B.C.E.

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (IT-US), Alberto Piazza (IT), Paolo Menozzi (IT), and Joanna Mountain (US) used genetic, archaeological, and linguistic data to reconstruct human evolution. They concluded that the first split in the phylogenetic tree separates Africans from non-Africans, and the second separates two major clusters, one corresponding to Caucasoids, East Asians, Arctic populations, and American natives, and the other to Southeast Asians (mainland and insular), Pacific islanders, and New Guineans and Australians. Average genetic distances between the most important clusters are proportional to archaeological separation times. Linguistic families correspond to groups of populations with very few, easily understood overlaps, and their origin can be given a time frame. Linguistic superfamilies show remarkable correspondence with the two major clusters, indicating considerable parallelism between genetic and linguistic evolution. The latest step in language development may have been an important factor determining the rapid expansion that followed the appearance of modern humans and the demise of Neanderthals (286).

 

c. 80 K B.C.E.

In 1856, bones were discovered in a cave in the Neander River Valley near Düsseldorf, Germany by quarrymen who gave them to a local schoolteacher and amateur naturalist, Johan Karl Fuhlrott. Fuhlrott identified them as human and thought them to be very old. He recognized them to be different from the usual bones of humans and showed them to Hermann Schaaffhausen, the Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bonn. Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen presented papers on the fossils and the geology of the Feldhofer Cave at a meeting of the Niederrheinische Gesellschaft für Naturund Heilkunde (Lower Rhine Medical and Natural History Society) in Bonn in 1857. They published independently at a later date (550; 1197).

William King, professor of geology at Queens College in Galway, Ireland, presented a paper in 1864 where he argued the Neanderthal fossils of Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen belonged to an extinct species of early human that he named Homo neanderthalensis (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). He named them for the Neander River Valley (tal = river in German) (788; 789). This specimen probably lived around 80 K.

 

Matthias Krings (DE), Anne Stone (US), Ralf W. Schmitz (DE), Heike Krainitzki (DE), Mark Stoneking (US), and Svante Pääbo (DE) reported the first ever sequencing of Neanderthal DNA, a breakthrough in the study of modern human evolution. The DNA was extracted for the type specimen and the mitochondrial DNA sequence was determined. This sequence was compared to living human mtDNA sequences and found to be outside the range of variation in modern humans (801).

 

c. 69,625 B.C.E.

Ellen Solomon (GB) and Walter Fred Bodmer (GB) estimated that the sickle variant gene first appeared 2,785 generations (or c. 69,625 years B.C.E.). This suggests that the origin of the sickle allele might well predate the origin of the major human racial groups, although its striking increase in frequency was much more recent (1281).

 

c. 40-68 K B.C.E.

James M. Bowler (AU) and Alan G. Thorne (AU) reported Lake Mungo 3 (Mungo Man), discovered in 1974, as an early human inhabitant of the continent of Australia. He is believed to have lived between 40 K and 68 K years ago, during the Pleistocene epoch (212). Note: Lake Mungo is in New South Wales, Australia.

 

Amédée Bouyssonie (FR), Jean Bouyssonie (FR) and Louis Bardon (FR) found skeletal remains of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis near the village of La Chapelle-aux-Saints in France (208). The remains were dated at c. 60 K.

 

Mateja Hajdinjak (DE), Fabrizio Mafessoni (DE), Laurits Skov (DE), Benjamin Vernot (DE), Alexander Hübner (DE), Qiaomei Fu (CN), Elena Essel (DE), Sarah Nagel (DE), Birgit Nickel (DE), Julia Richter (DE), Oana Teodora Moldovan (RO), Silviu Constantin (RO) ,Elena Endarova (BG) ,Nikolay Zahariev (BG) ,Rosen Spasov (BG) ,Frido Welker (DE) ,Geoff M Smith (DE) ,Virginie Sinet-Mathiot (DE) ,Lindsey Paskulin (GB) ,Helen Fewlass (DE) ,Sahra Talamo (DE) ,Zeljko Rezek (DE) ,Svoboda Sirakova (BG) ,Nikolay Sirakov (BG) ,Shannon P McPherron (DE) ,Tsenka Tsanova (DE) ,Jean-Jacques Hublin (DE) ,Benjamin M Peter (DE) ,Matthias Meyer (DE) ,Pontus Skoglund (GB) ,Janet Kelso (DE) , and Svante Pääbo (DE) present genome-wide data from three individuals dated to between 45,930 and 42,580 years ago from Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria. They are the earliest Late Pleistocene modern humans known to have been recovered in Europe so far, and were found in association with an Initial Upper Palaeolithic artifact assemblage. These individuals are more closely related to present-day and ancient populations in East Asia and the Americas than to later west Eurasian populations. This indicates that they belonged to a modern human migration into Europe that was not previously known from the genetic record, and provides evidence that there was at least some continuity between the earliest modern humans in Europe and later people in Eurasia. Moreover, they found that all three individuals had Neanderthal ancestors a few generations back in their family history, confirming that the first European modern humans mixed with Neanderthals and suggesting that such mixing could have been common (624).

Ludovic Slimak (FR), Clément Zanolli (FR), Tom Higham (GB), Marine Frouin (GB), Jean-Luc Schwenninger (GB), Lee J. Arnold (AU), Martina Demuro (AU), Katerina Douka (AT), Norbert Mercier (FR), Gilles Guérin (FR), Hélène Valladas (FR),Pascale Yvorra(FR), Yves Giraud (FR), Andaine Seguin-Orlando (FR), Jason E. Lewis (US), Xavier Muth (CH), Hubert Camus(FR), Ségolène Vandevelde (FR), Mike Buckley (GB), Carolina Mallol (ES), Chris Stringer (GB), and Laure Metz (FR) reported hominin fossils from Grotte Mandrin in France that reveal the earliest known presence of modern humans in Europe between 56,800 and 51,700 years ago. This early modern human incursion in the Rhône Valley is associated with technologies unknown in any industry of that age outside Africa or the Levant. Mandrin documents the first alternating occupation of Neanderthals and modern humans, with a modern human fossil and associated Neronian lithic industry found stratigraphically between layers containing Neanderthal remains associated with Mousterian industries (1266).

 

c. 60 K B.C.E.

Baruch Arensburg (IL), Anne-Marie Tillier (FR), Bernard Vandermeersch (FR), Henri Duday (FR), Lynne A. Schepartz (US), and Yoel Rak (IL) reported the discovery of a well-preserved human (Neanderthal) hyoid bone from Middle Paleolithic layers of Kebara Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel, dating from about 60 K. The bone is almost identical in size and shape to the hyoid of present-day humans, suggesting that there has been little or no change in the visceral skeleton (including the hyoid, middle ear ossicles, and inferentially the larynx) during the past 60 K years of human evolution. They concluded that the morphological basis for human speech capability appears to have been fully developed during the Middle Paleolithic (86).

 

Alan Thorne (AU), Rainer Grun (AU), Graham Mortimer (AU), Nigel A. Spooner (AU), John J. Simpson (AU), Malcolm McCulloch (AU), Lois Taylor (AU), and Darren Curnoe (AU) presented evidence that people who were skeletally within the range of the present Australian indigenous population colonized the continent during or before 69 K-55 K (1351).

 

Amadee Bouyssonie (FR), Jean Bouyssonie (FR) and Louis Bardon (FR) found skeletal remains of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis near the village of La Chapelle-aux-Saints in France (208). The remains were dated at c. 58 K.

 

Dorothy Anne Elizabeth Garrod (GB), Dorothea Minola Alice Bate (GB), Theodore Doney McCowan (GB), and Arthur Keith (GB) reported the discovery of a fossilized female skeleton likely to be Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis at Mugharet et-Tabun, Mount Carmel, southeast of Haifa, Israel. They also discovered Homo remains from roughly the same time period in a nearby cave named Mugharet es-Skhül (569; 942). These specimens were dated at 58-28 K.

 

c. 48 K B.C.E.

Peter Brown (AU), Thomas Sutikna (AU), Mike J. Morwood (AU), Raden Pandji Soejono (ID), Jatmiko (?), E. Wahyu Saptomo (AU), and Rokus Awe Due (AU) discovered the remains of an individual that would have stood about 3.5 feet (1.1 m) in height at Liang Bua on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Homo floresiensis ("Flores Man"; nicknamed "hobbit") is an extinct species in the genus Homo. Extensive stratigraphic and chronological work pushed the dating of the most recent evidence of their existence back to 48 K (240).

 

c. 45 K B.C.E.

Ralph Stefan Solecki (US) and coworkers, from 1951-1960, examined the Shanidar cave in North Central Iraq for fossil remains. Nine partial Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis skeletons were removed (1279; 1280). The specimens have been dated between 52-23 K.

Thomas Dale Stewart (US), discovered Shanidar I at Shanidar cave in Iraq. This Neanderthal male, 30-45 years of age, had an underdeveloped right shoulder blade, collar bone, and upper right arm bone. He believes that Shanidar I was crippled, with a useless right arm, which had been amputated in life just above the elbow (1300). This is surely one of the earliest known examples of surgery.

 

c. 42 K B.C.E.

Arthur Keith (GB) discovered a human upper jaw in Southern England and initially diagnosed it as Upper Paleolithic modern human (770).

Tom Higham (GB), Tim Compton (GB), Chris Stringer (GB), Roger Jacobi (GB), Beth Shapiro (US), Erik Trinkaus (US), Barry Chandler (GB), Flora Gröning (GB), Chris Collins (GB), Simon Hillison (UK), Paul O'Higgins (GB), Charles FitzGerald (UK), and Michael Fagan (UK) tested the jaw Keith found using a Bayesian analysis of new ultra-filtered bone collagen and found that it dated to 42.2–39.5 K in an ordered stratigraphic sequence at the site. This placed it as older than any other equivalently dated modern human specimen and directly contemporary with the latest European Neanderthals (670).

 

Arturo Palma di Cesnola (IT) and Edoardo Borzatti von Löwenstein (IT), in 1964, found two deciduous molars in the so-called Uluzzian archaeological layers unearthed from the Grotta del Cavallo (Southern Italy). They were classified as Neanderthal and dated to 45 K years ago, making them the oldest known human remains on the continent (1038). In 2011, the two deciduous teeth from Cavallo Cave, the only human remains associated with the Uluzzian so far, were identified as belonging to anatomically modern humans and not Neanderthals.

Stefano Benazzi (AT), Katerina Douka (GB), Cinzia Fornai (AT), Catherine C. Bauer (DE), Ottmar Kullmer (DE), Jiří Svoboda (CZ), Ildikó Pap (HU), Francesco Mallegni (IT), Priscilla Bayle (FR), Michael Coquerelle (ES), Silvana Condemi (FR), Annamaria Ronchitelli (IT), Katerina Harvati (DE), and Gerhard W. Weber (AT) reanalyzed the deciduous molars from the Grotta del Cavallo (Southern Italy), associated with the Uluzzian and originally classified as Neanderthal. Their new chronometric data for the Uluzzian layers of Grotta del Cavallo obtained from associated shell beads and included within a Bayesian age model show that the teeth must date to 43–41 K. The Cavallo human remains are therefore the oldest known European anatomically modern humans, confirming a rapid dispersal of modern humans across the continent before the Aurignacian and the disappearance of Neanderthals (158).

 

Qiaomei Fu (CN-US-DE), Cosimo Posth (DE), Mateja Hajdinjak (DE), Martin Petr (DE), Swapan Mallick (US), Daniel Fernandes (IE-PT), Anja Furtwängler (DE), Wolfgang Haak (DE-AU), Matthias Meyer (DE), Alissa Mittnik (DE), Birgit Nickel (DE), Alexander Peltzer (DE), Nadin Rohland (US), Viviane Slon (DE), Sahra Talamo (DE), Iosif Lazaridis (US), Mark Lipson (US), Iain Mathieson (US), Stephan Schiffels (DE), Pontus Skoglund (US), Anatoly P. Derevianko (RU), Nikolai Drozdov (RU), Vyacheslav Slavinsky (RU), Alexander Tsybankov (RU), Renata Grifoni Cremonesi (IT), Francesco Mallegni (IT), Bernard Gély (FR), Eligio Vacca (IT), Manuel R. González Morales (ES), Lawrence G. Straus (US-ES), Christine Neugebauer-Maresch (AT), Maria Teschler-Nicola (AT), Silviu Constantin (RO), Oana Teodora Moldovan (RO), Stefano Benazzi (DE-IT), Marco Peresani (IT), Donato Coppola (IT), Martina Lari (IT), Stefano Ricci (IT), Annamaria Ronchitelli (IT), Frédérique Valentin (FR), Corinne Thevenet (FR), Kurt Wehrberger (DE), Dan Grigorescu (RO), Hélène Rougier (US), Isabelle Crevecoeur (FR), Damien Flas (FR), Patrick Semal (BE), Marcello A. Mannino (DE), Christophe Cupillard (FR), Hervé Bocherens (DE), Nicholas J. Conard (DE), Katerina Harvati (DE), Vyacheslav Moiseyev (RU), Dorothée G. Drucker (DE), Jiří Svoboda (CZ), Michael P. Richards (CA-DE), David Caramelli (IT), Ron Pinhasi (IE), Janet Kelso (DE), Nick Patterson (US), Johannes Krause (DE), Svante Pääbo (SE-DE), and David Emil Reich (US) analyzed genome-wide data from 51 Eurasians from 45,000–7,000 years ago. Over this time, the proportion of Neanderthal DNA decreased from 3–6% to around 2%, consistent with natural selection against Neanderthal variants in modern humans. Whereas there is no evidence of the earliest modern humans in Europe contributing to the genetic composition of present-day Europeans, all individuals between 37,000 and 14,000 years ago descended from a single founder population which forms part of the ancestry of present-day Europeans. A 35,000-year-old individual from Northwest Europe represents an early branch of this founder population which was then displaced across a broad region, before reappearing in Southwest Europe at the height of the last Ice Age 19,000 years ago. During the major warming period after 14,000 years ago, a genetic component related to present-day Near Easterners became widespread in Europe. These results document how population turnover and migration have been recurring themes of European prehistory (547).

 

Maxime Aubert (AU), adam Brumm (AU), Muhammad Ramli (ID), Thomas Sutikna (ID), E. Wahyu Saptomo (ID), Budianto Hakim (ID), Michael J. Morwood (AU), Gert D. van den Bergh (AU), Les Kinsley (AU), and Antonio Dosseto (AU) discovered prehistoric graffiti on Sulawesi Island in Indonesia that is at least 40 K years old, potentially usurping Europe as the location of the world’s oldest cave art (99).

 

Ubirr at Kakadu in the Northern Territory, Australia contains rock shelters where the rock faces have been continuously painted and repainted by humans since 40 K (305).

 

c. 39-20 K B.C.E.

Louis Capitan (FR) and Denis Peyrony (FR) found a fossil remains of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis that dated to c. 36 K. The site was near La Ferrassie, France (271).

 

The Tokyo University Scientific Expedition to Western Asia (Director: Hisashi Suzuki) discovered fossil remains of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis in a cave in Wadi Amud, north of Tiberias, Israel (1372). Note: The remains were dated from about 39-23 K.

 

Francois Lèvèque (FR) and Bernard Vandermeersch (FR), in 1979, found fossil remains of a Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis near Saint-Césaire in Southwestern France (855). This may well be the most recent Neandertal known at c.36 K..

 

Johannes Krause (DE), Qiaomei Fu (DE), Jeffrey M. Good (US), Bence Viola (DE-AT), Michael V. Shunkov (RU), Anatoli P. Derevianko (RU), and Svante Pääbo (DE), in March 2010, announced the discovery of a finger bone fragment that belonged to a juvenile female who lived about 41 K years ago. It was found in the remote Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains in Siberia, a cave that has also been inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans (799).

David Reich (US-DE), Richard E. Green (DE-US), Martin Kircher (DE), Johannes Krause (DE), Nick Patterson (US), Eric Y. Durand (US), Bence Viola (DE-DE), Adrian W. Briggs (US-DE), Udo Stenzel (DE), Philip L. F. Johnson (US), Tomislav Maricic (DE), Jeffrey M. Good (US), Tomas Marques-Bonet (US-ES), Can Alkan (US), Qiaomei Fu (DE-CN), Swapan Mallick (US), Heng Li (US), Matthias Meyer (DE), Evan E. Eichler (US), Mark Stoneking (DE), Michael Richards (DE-CA), Sahra Talamo (DE), Michael V. Shunkov (RU), Anatoli P. Derevianko (RU), Jean-Jacques Hublin (DE), Janet Kelso (DE), Montgomery Slatkin (US), and Svante Pääbo (DE) sequenced the genome of an archaic hominin to about 1.9-fold coverage. This individual is from a group that shares a common origin with Neanderthals. This population was not involved in the putative gene flow from Neanderthals into Eurasians; however, the data suggest that it contributed 4-6% of its genetic material to the genomes of present-day Melanesians. They designated this hominin population 'Denisovans' and suggest that it may have been widespread in Asia during the Late Pleistocene epoch. A tooth found in Denisova Cave carries a mitochondrial genome highly similar to that of the finger bone. This tooth shares no derived morphological features with Neanderthals or modern humans, further indicating that Denisovans have an evolutionary history distinct from Neanderthals and modern humans (1133).

Viviane Slon (DE), Fabrizio Mafessoni (DE), Benjamin Vernot (DE), Cesare de Filippo (DE), Steffi Grote (DE), Bence Viola (CA-RU), Mateja Hajdinjak (DE), Stéphane Peyrégne (DE), Sarah Nagel (DE), Samantha Brown (DE), Katerina Douka (DE-GB), Tom Higham (GB), Maxim B. Kozlikin (RU), Michael V. Shunkov (RU), Anatoly P. Derevianko (RU), Janet Kelso (DE), Matthias Meyer (DE), Kay Prüfer (DE), and Svante Pääbo (DE) presented the genome of 'Denisova 11', a bone fragment from Denisova Cave (Russia) and show that it comes from an individual who had a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father (1267). Note: The Denisovan or Denisova hominin is an extinct species or subspecies of human in the genus Homo. Pending its status as either species or subspecies it currently carries the temporary name Homo sp. Altai, and Homo sapiens ssp. Denisova.

 

Kay Prüfer (DE), Fernando Racimo (US), Nick Patterson (US), Flora Jay (US), Sriram Sankararaman (US), Susanna Sawyer (DE), Anja Heinze (DE), Gabriel Renaud (DE), Peter H. Sudmant (US), Cesare de Filippo (DE), Heng Li (US), Swapan Mallick (US), Michael Dannemann (DE), Qiaomei Fu (CN), Martin Kircher (DE), Martin Kuhlwilm (DE), Michael Lachmann (DE), Matthias Meyer (DE), Matthias Ongyerth (DE), Michael Siebauer (DE), Christoph Theunert (DE), Arti Tandon (US), Priya Moorjani (US), Joseph Pickrell (US), James C. Mullikin (US), Samuel H. Vohr (US), Richard E. Green (US), Ines Hellmann (DE), Philip L. F. Johnson (US), Hélène Blanche (FR), Howard Cann (FR), Jacob O. Kitzman (US), Jay Shendure (US), Evan E. Eichler (US), Ed S. Lein (US), Trygve E. Bakken (US), Liubov V. Golovanova (RU), Vladimir B. Doronichev (RU), Michael V. Shunkov (RU), Anatoli P. Derevianko (RU), Bence Viola (DE), Montgomery Slatkin (US), David Emil Reich (US), Janet Kelso (DE), and Svante Pääbo (SE-DE) presented a high-quality genome sequence of a Neanderthal woman from Siberia. They showed that her parents were related at the level of half-siblings and that mating among close relatives was common among her recent ancestors. They also sequenced the genome of a Neanderthal from the Caucasus to low coverage. Their analysis of the relationships and population history of available archaic genomes and 25 present-day human genomes shows that several gene flow events occurred among Neanderthals, Denisovans, and early modern humans, possibly including gene flow into Denisovans from an unknown archaic group. Thus, interbreeding, albeit of low magnitude, occurred among many hominin groups in the Late Pleistocene. In addition, the high-quality Neanderthal genome allowed them to establish a definitive list of substitutions that became fixed in modern humans after their separation from the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans (1111).

 

Ralph Stefan Solecki (US) and coworkers examined the Shanidar cave in North Central Iraq for fossil remains. Nine partial Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; Homo neanderthalensis skeletons were removed (1279; 1280). Note: The specimens have been dated between 53-23 K.

 

c. 35 K B.C.E.

Nicholas J. Conrad (US-DE) discovered a female mammoth-ivory figurine in the basal Aurignacian deposit at Hohle Fels Cave in the Swabian Jura of Southwestern Germany during excavations in 2008. This figurine was produced at least 35 K calendar years ago, making it one of the oldest known examples of figurative art. This discovery predates the well-known Venuses from the Gravettian culture by at least 5K years and radically changes our views of the context and meaning of the earliest Palaeolithic art (344).

 

David Emil Reich (US), Nick Patterson (US), Desmond Campbell (US), Arti Tandon (US), Stéphane Mazieres (US), Nicolas Ray (US), Maria V. Parra (US), Winston Rojas (US), Constanza Duque (US), Natalia Mesa (US), Luis F. García (US), Omar Triana (US), Silvia Blair (US), Amanda Maestre (US), Juan C. Dib (US), Claudio M. Bravi (US), Graciela Bailliet (US), Daniel Corach (US), Tábita Hünemeier (US), Maria Cátira Bortolini (US), Francisco M. Salzano (US), María Luiza Petzl-Erler (US), Victor Acuña-Alonzo (US), Carlos Aguilar-Salinas (US), Samuel Canizales-Quinteros (US), Teresa Tusié-Luna (US), Laura Riba (US), Maricela Rodríguez-Cruz (US), Mardia Lopez-Alarcón (US), Ramón Coral-Vazquez (US), Thelma Canto-Cetina (US), Irma Silva-Zolezzi (US), Juan Carlos Fernandez-Lopez (US), Alejandra V. Contreras (US), Gerardo Jimenez-Sanchez (US), Maria José Gómez-Vázquez (US), Julio Molina (US), Ángel Carracedo (US), Antonio Salas (US), Carla Gallo (US), Giovanni Poletti (US), David B. Witonsky (US), Gorka Alkorta-Aranburu (US), Rem I. Sukernik (US), Ludmila Osipova (US), Sardana A. Fedorova (US), René Vasquez (US), Mercedes Villena (US), Claudia Moreau (US), Ramiro Barrantes (US), David Pauls (US), Laurent Excoffier (US), Gabriel Bedoya (US), Francisco Rothhammer (US), Jean-Michel Dugoujon (US), Georges Larrouy (US), William Klitz (US), Damian Labuda (US-CA), Judith Kidd (US), Kenneth Kidd (US), Anna Di Rienzo (US), Nelson B. Freimer (US), Alkes L. Price (US), and Andrés Ruiz-Linares (US) analyzed more than 300,000 DNA sequence variations from Native American and Siberian human populations. They revealed that North and South America were populated in three ancient waves of migration (1134).

 

c. 30 K B.C.E.

James M. Bowler (AU), Rhys Jones (AU), Harry Allen (AU), Alan G. Thorne (AU), and Mike Barbetti (AU) reported Lake Mungo 1 (Mungo Lady) which was discovered in 1969 and is one of the world's oldest known cremations (125; 210; 211). Note: Lake Mungo is in New South Wales, Australia.

 

c. 29.4 K B.C.E.

Reidar Nydal (NO) radiocarbon dated a total of six wooly mammoths yielding an average age of c. 29.4 K. (1005).

 

c. 29 K B.C.E.

Jean-Marie Chauvet (FR), Éliette Brunel-Deschamps (FR), and Christian Hillaire (FR) discovered the Chauvet-Pont-D’Arc cave in Ardéche France, in 1994. It was occupied by Paleolithic man of the Aurignacian culture and contains magnificent drawings of mammoths, rhinoceroses, lions, and cave bears dated to between 28.3 and 30.4 K. These drawings are unmatched in their sophistication (243).

 

Coliboaia Cave located in the Sighistel Valley, near the village of Campani, Bihor County, Romania was found in the Autumn of 2009 to contain cave paintings from c. 29 K, corresponding to the Aurignacian and Gravettian cultures of the Paleolithic period. Tudor Rus (RU), Spedova Stei (RU), Mihai Besesek (RU), Valentin Alexandru Radu (RU), Roxana Laura Toiciu (RU), and Marius Kenesz (RU) discovered the paintings. A French team of archaeologists composed of Marcel Meyssonnier, Valerie Plichon, Michel Philippe, Francoise Prudhomme, Jean Clottes, and Bernard Gély attested to the authenticity of the paintings (121; 320; 1504).

 

The Serra da Capivara National Park in Northeast Brazil near the town of Sao Raimundo Nonato contains exceptional testimony to one of the oldest populations to inhabit South America. It constitutes and preserves the largest ensemble of archaeological sites, and the oldest examples of rock art in the Americas. Moreover, the iconography of the paintings allows us to identify information about the region’s early peoples. The dating of the rock art suggests continuous occupation from 30,160 ± 100 to 4,160 ± 130 years (620).

 

Wolfgang Ernst Wendt (DE) discovered seven limestone slabs of rock with traces of animal figures in the Apollo 11 Cave in the Huns Mountains of Southwestern Namibia. They have been dated with unusual precision for ancient rock art. Their age is between 30-26 K (1445).

 

c. 27-20 K B.C.E.

Louis Lartet (FR), in 1868, was the first to find fossil remains of Homo sapiens sapiens (Cro-Magnon man). These were in a rock shelter site near the village of Les Eyzies in Southwestern France (230). The name Cro-Magnon comes from Abri Cro-Magnon, Les Eyzies, France where the remains were found. Though spelled magnon the correct pronunciation is "man yon". Louis Lartet was a geologist and son of solicitor and prehistorian Edouard Lartet (FR).

Discarded bones at their ancient campsites testify that Cro-Magnon often fed on vertebrates such as horses and reindeer (971).

 

William Buckland (GB) found a human skeleton within the Paviland Cave on the south coast of the Gower peninsula, South Wales. It was covered with red ocher and ceremonially buried with ivory ornaments and perforated seashells, the circumstances hinting at a ritual or shamanic use of the site. Buckland thought it dated from the Roman occupation and called it the Red Lady (252). Note: The skeleton was later identified as Cro-Magnon and dated from roughly 28 K-18 K; the Early Upper Paleolithic (Early Stone Age).

 

John Desmond Clark (US) attributed the great success of Homo sapiens sapiens over other hominids to the development of speech. “The achievement of awareness and integration, as with the transmission of knowledge, is in the main through speech” (316).

 

Antonio Torroni (IT), Rem I. Sukernik (RU), Yelena B. Starikovskaya (RU), Margaret F. Cabell (US), Michael H. Crawford (US), Anthony G. Comuzzie (US), James van Gundia Neel (US), Ramiro Barrantes (CR), Theodore G. Schurr (US), and Douglas C. Wallace (US) compared several DNA markers found in modern Native Americans and modern Siberians and estimated that if the Amerinds entered the New World as a single group, that entry would have occurred approximately 25 K-18 K (1356; 1357).

 

Johanna Nichols (US) suggests that the diversity of languages found among Native Americans could have arisen only after humans had been in the New World for at least 30K-20K years (998).

 

Joseph M. McAvoy (US) and Lynn D. McAvoy (US) noted that the location, dating and technology represented by the Cactus Hill, Meadowcroft and Page-Ladson sites in the eastern United States provide the ‘missing’ chronological and technological links between Solutrean and Clovis cultures (940). Note: Cactus Hill was occupied 12K-16K B.C.E.

 

Bruce A. Bradley (GB) and Dennis J. Stanford (US) placed the technological antecedents of North America's Clovis culture in Europe and posit that the first Americans crossed the Atlantic by boat and arrived earlier than previously thought. Presenting archaeological and oceanographic evidence to support this assertion, they dismantle the old paradigm while persuasively linking Clovis technology with the culture of Silurian people who occupied France and Spain more than 18 K years ago. "Silurian" is named after the type-site of Croat du Charier at Solute in the Macon district, Saone-et-Loire, Eastern France, and appeared around 19 K (220; 1289).

 

Nelson J.R. Fagundes (BR), Ricardo Kanitz (BR), Roberta Eckert (BR), Ana C.S. Valls (BR), Mauricio R. Bogo (BR), Francisco M. Salzano (BR), David Glenn Smith (US), Wilson A. Silva, Jr. (BR), Marco A. Zago (BR), Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos (BR), Sidney E.B. Santos (BR), Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler (BR) and Sandro L. Bonatto (BR) found that mitochondrial population genomics supports a single pre-Clovis origin with a coastal route for the peopling of the Americas (500).

 

c. 19.5-12.5 K B.C.E.

Darren Curnoe (AU), Ji Xueping (CN), Andy I. R. Herries (AU), Bai Kanning (CN), Paul S. C. Taçon (AU), Bao Zhende (CN), David Fink (AU), Zhu Yunsheng (CN), John Hellstrom (AU), Luo Yun (CN), Gerasimos Cassis (AU), Su Bing (CN), Stephen Wroe (AU), Hong Shi (CN), William C. H. Parr (AU), Huang Shengmin (CN), and Natalie Rogers (AU) reported that the Red Deer Cave People were the most recent known prehistoric archaic human population. Their fossils, dated to between 19.5 K B.C.E. and 12.5 K B.C.E., were found in Red Deer Cave and Longlin Cave in China. Tentatively they are thought to be a separate species of humans that persisted until recent times and became extinct without contributing to the gene pool of modern human (368).

 

c. 16.5-10.5 K B.C.E.

Tom D. Dillehay (US-CL), from 1977 to 1985, excavated at Monte Verde, some 31 miles (50 km) inland from the Pacific Ocean in Southern Chile. He found evidence of a known site of human habitation in the Americas c. 12K B.C.E. (446; 447).

Tom D. Dillehay (US-CL), Carlos Ocampo (CL), José Saavedra (CL), Andre Oliveira Sawakuchi (BR), Rodrigo M. Vega (CL), Mario Pino (CL), Michael B. Collins (US), Linda Scott Cummings (US), Iván Arregui (CL), Ximena S. Villagran (BR), Gelvam A. Hartmann (BR), Mauricio Mella (CL), Andrea González (CL), and George Dix (CA) found that radiocarbon dating of fire-charred plants and bones suggests that people built cooking fires and made stone tools at Monte Verde 16.5 K or earlier (448).

 

c. 13 K B.C.E.

Jean Louis Rudolph Agassiz (CH-US) was the first to conclude—from his studies of glaciers—that there had been an Ice Age. He borrowed the phrase ice age (Disseat) from a poem by his friend Karl Schemer (25-27; 916). Note: The last great ice age occurred 2.6 M—9 K.

James Hutton (GB), in 1795, had speculated that some strange erratic boulders near Geneva had been carried and left there by glaciers that had since retreated (721).

 

Luther Sided (PL-AR) found eggs of the fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothrium latum, in the intestines of two human bodies preserved in a peat bog in East Prussia since the early glacial period (1318).

 

Marcel Ravidat (FR), Jacques Marsal (FR), Georges Agnel (FR), and Simon Coencas (FR), in 1940, discovered the cave at Lascaux, France where man produced representational art on the walls. It contains a great collection of Paleolithic art 13 K—8 K (7).

 

Marcelino de Santuola (ES), in 1869, discovered the Altamira Caves near Santillana del Mar, Spain. These caves contain important Paleolithic art 14 K—12 K (97).

 

c. 12.6-9.6 K B.C.E.

Amaia Arranz-Otaegui (DK), Lara Gonzalez Carretero (GB), Monica N. Ramsey (GB), Dorian Q. Fuller (GB), and Tobias Richter (DK) analyzed a total of 24 charred food remains from Shubayqa 1, a Natufian hunter-gatherer site located in northeastern Jordan and dated to 12.6 K-9.6 K. This provided empirical data to demonstrate that the preparation and consumption of bread-like products predated the emergence of agriculture by at least 4,000 years. The interdisciplinary analyses indicate the use of some of the "founder crops" of Southwest Asian agriculture (e.g., Triticum boeoticum, wild einkorn) and root foods (e.g., Bolboschoenus glaucus, club-rush tubers) to produce flat bread-like products (91).

 

c. 13.5 -11.2-K B.C.E.

Michael R. Waters (US), Steven L. Foreman (US), Thomas A. Jennings (US), Lee C. Nordt (US), Steven G. Driese (US), Joshua M. Feinberg (US), Joshua L. Keene (US), Jessi Halligan (US), James Pierson (US), Charles T. Hallmark (US), Michael B. Collins (US), and James E. Wiederhold (US) provided archaeological evidence of a human presence in the Americas that pre-dates the Clovis peoples, who until recently were thought to be the first humans to explore and settle North America. The site's pre-Clovis occupation is supported by numerous lines of evidence including optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates ranging from 13.5 K-11.2 K before present, undisturbed stratigraphy, and an extensive stone tool assemblage (1432). Note: OSL is a technique that analyzes light energy trapped in sediment particles to identify the last time the soil was exposed to sunlight.

 

c. 11 K B.C.E.

Knut R. Fladmark (CA) has been one of the most vocal supporters of the proposal that humans from Siberia may have traveled along the Pacific coastlines as they populated North and South America (526).

 

c. 10.3 K B.C.E.

M. Thomas P. Gilbert (DK), Dennis L. Jenkins (US), Anders Götherstrom (SE), Nuria Naveran (ES), Juan J. Sanchez (ES), Michael Hofreiter (DE), Philip Francis Thomsen (DK), Jonas Binladen (DK), Thomas F.G. Higham (GB), Robert M. Yohe, II (US), Robert Parr (US), Linda Scott Cummings (US), and Eske Willerslev (DK) established that humans were present at Paisley 5 Mile Point Caves, in South-central Oregon, by 10.3 K, through the recovery of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from coprolites, directly dated by accelerator mass spectrometry (581).

 

c. 10 K B.C.E.

The Holocene or Recent Epoch includes the time since the end of the last Ice Age, approximately 10,000 year ago. It was during this time that Homo sapiens completed worldwide radiation and became technologically advanced. The beginning of the Holocene saw a warming trend and the receding of the Wisconsinan Ice at the end of the Pleistocene. Many of the larger animals associated with the ice ages, such as mammoths and mastodons, did not survive into Recent times. It is probable that a combination of climatic change and human predation resulted in the extinction of these species.

 

Malcolm Lillie (UK), Michael P. Richards (UK), and Kenneth Jacobs (CA) analysed bone collagen extracted from 21 humans from the Epipalaeolithic cemetery of Vasilyevka III. This particular cemetery is one of the three early sites from the Dnieper Rapids region, Ukraine, with Vasilyevka III being dated to the period c. 10,400–9200 B.C.E. on the basis of three radiocarbon determinations. Analyses provided insights into the nature of the diet of these populations during a stage of major restructuring of the landscapes in the European mainland (860).

 

Man (Homo sapiens) first started eating a crude form of flat bread - a baked combination of flour and water. Man (Homo sapiens) domesticated dogs, pigs, sheep, goats, fowl, and other animals in Europe, Northern Africa and the Near East (1131).

 

Historians speculate that smallpox (red plague) probably emerged sometime after the first agricultural settlements (946).

 

Just Marie Marcelin Lucas-Championnière (FR) described Neolithic human skulls from nearly all parts of the world with disks of bone removed. This process, called trephining, represents the first evidence of man’s intervention in an attempt to heal his fellow man. This surgical procedure was likely done to release confined demons associated with epilepsy, infantile convulsions, headache, and various cerebral diseases (884). See, Stewart, c. 45 K B.C.E.

 

c. 9.7 - 7.7 K B.C.E.

Li Liu (US), Jiajing Wang (US), Danny Rosenberg (IL), Hao Zhao (CN), György Lengyel (PL), and Dani Nadel (IL) reported the earliest archaeological evidence for cereal-based beer brewing by a semi-sedentary, foraging people. The current project incorporates experimental study, contextual examination, and use-wear and residue analyses of three stone mortars from a Natufian burial site at Raqefet Cave, Israel (9.7 K–7.7 K ) (869).

 

c. 9.5 K B.C.E.

Jesse D. Figgins (US) found large, heavy fluted stone points near Clovis, New Mexico. Mammoth bones in a deposit beneath a layer containing "Folsom points" and bison skeletons accompanied them. The robust points, now named "Clovis", were recognized as even older than the Folsom points. Characteristic of both points is a flute, a flake struck off the base along the length of the point, presumably to facilitate hafting (520).

C. Vance Haynes, Jr. (US) used radiocarbon dating to place the Clovis points at about 9.5 K - 9 K, and none before 10 K (647).

 

c. 9 K B.C.E.

Klaus Schmidt (DE) and his team made a startling archaeological discovery between 1995 and 2007: massive carved stones about 11,000 years old, crafted and arranged by prehistoric people who had not yet developed metal tools or even pottery. The megaliths predate Stonehenge by some 6,000 years. The place is called Gobekli Tepe, near the Turkish/Syrian border. Schmidt is convinced it's the site of the world's oldest temple (1207).

 

c. 8 K B.C.E.

In the Middle East, Early Neolithic man began the domestication of plants (304).

Chester Gorman (US) found evidence to support Carl Ortwin Sauer’s (US) hypothesis of plant domestication by the Hoabinhian people. They lived at Spirit Cave in Northern Thailand and grew domesticated beans, peas, gourds and water chestnuts around 6 - 9 K (601-603; 1192).

Solomon H. Katz (US) and Mary M. Voigt (US) report that the earliest evidence for domesticated grains comes from Tell Aswad, Jericho, and Nasal Oren. Excavations at these sites have surrendered a few grains of barley, wheat, and lentils morphologically different than wild-type strains (768).

 

c. 7 K B.C.E.

Ilyia Iosifovich Gokhman (RU) examined a skeleton (No. 6285-9) from the Vasilyevka II cemeteries in the Dnieper Rapids region, Ukraine, with evidence that trephination— surgical removal of bone from the cranial vault— had been performed during the Mesolithic period. The cemetery, excavated in 1953 by Abram Davydovich Stolyar (RU), has been dated to between 7.3 - 6.2 K, making this trephined cranium the oldest known example of a healed trephination yet discovered. The skull has a depression on its left side with a raised border of bone and 'stepping' in the center showing stages of healing during life. The complete closure indicates the survival rate of the patient, a man who was more than 50 years old at his death (593; 861).

Kurt W. Alt (DE) and his colleagues discovered a 5 K burial at Ensisheim, in the French region of Alsace, which yielded unequivocal evidence for trephination (1419).

 

Grafton Elliott Smith (AU-GB), in 1901, discovered the oldest urological object on record, a bladder calculus, in a prehistoric Egyptian tomb, in the pelvis of a mummy. The calculus has a uric acid nucleus with concentric laminations of calcium oxalate and ammonium magnesium phosphate (1161; 1254).

 

Patrick E. McGovern (US), Juzhong Zhang (CN), Jigen Tang (CN), Zhiqing Zhang (CN), Gretchen R. Hall (US), Robert A. Moreau (US), Alberto Nuñez (US), Eric D. Butrym (DE), Michael P. Richards (DE), Chen-shan Wang (US), Guangsheng Cheng (CN), Zhijun Zhao (CN), and Changsui Wang (CN) found evidence that the Chinese made an alcoholic beverage from fruit, rice, and honey, in the Neolithic Chinese village of Jiahu (945).

 

Lara M. Cassidy (IE) and Daniel G. Bradley (IE) suggest that it is clear that migrations at or around the transitions leading to the adoption of farming and prior to the bronze Age have been major determinants of European genetic ancestry. The first four ancient Irish genomes sequenced have shown that two migration waves of profound effect—that of Anatolian farmers carrying the Neolithic (c. 9000 BP.) into the continent and that of third-millennium migrations from the steppe—washed all the way to Ireland (280).

Iain Mathieson (US), Songül Alpaslan-Roodenberg (US), Cosimo Posth (DE), Anna Szécsényi-Nagy (HU), Nadin Rohland (US), Swapan Mallick (US), Iñigo Olalde (US), Nasreen Broomandkhoshbacht (US), Francesca Candilio (IE), Olivia Cheronet (IE), Daniel Fernandes (PT), Matthew Ferry (US), Beatriz Gamarra (IE), Gloria González Fortes (IT), Wolfgang Haak (DE-AU), Eadaoin Harney (US), Eppie Jones (IE-GB), Denise Keating (IE), Ben Krause-Kyora (DE), Isil Kucukkalipci (DE), Megan Michel (US), Alissa Mittnik (DE), Kathrin Nägele (DE), Mario Novak (IE-HR), Jonas Oppenheimer (US), Nick Patterson (US), Saskia Pfrengle (DE), Kendra Sirak (IE-US), Kristin Stewardson (US), Stefania Vai (IT), Stefan Alexandrov (BG), Kurt W. Alt (AT), Radian Andreescu (RO), Dragana Antonović (CS), Abigail Ash (IE), Nadezhda Atanassova (BU), Krum Bacvarov (BG), Mende Balázs Gusztáv (HU), Hervé Bocherens (DE), Michael Bolus (DE), Adina Boroneanţ (RO), Yavor Boyadzhiev (BG), Alicja Budnik (PL), Josip Burmaz (HR), Stefan Chohadzhiev (BG), Nicholas J. Conard (DE), Richard Cottiaux (FR), Maja Čuka (HR), Christophe Cupillard (FR), Dorothée G. Drucker (DE), Nedko Elenski (BG), Michael Francken (DE), Borislava Galabova (BG), Georgi Ganetsovski BG), Bernard Gély (FR), Tamás Hajdu (HU), Veneta Handzhyiska (BG), Katerina Harvati (DE), Thomas Higham (GB), Stanislav Iliev (BG), Ivor Janković (HR), Ivor Karavanić (BG), Douglas J. Kennett (US), Darko Komšo (HR), Alexandra Kozak (UA), Damian Labuda (CA), Martina Lari (IT), Catalin Lazar (RO), Maleen Leppek (DE), Krassimir Leshtakov (BG), Domenico Lo Vetro (IT), Dženi Los (HR), Ivaylo Lozanov (BG), Maria Malina (DE), Fabio Martini (IT), Kath McSweeney (GB), Harald Meller (DE), Marko Menđušić (HR), Pavel Mirea (RO), Vyacheslav Moiseyev (RU), Vanya Petrova (BG), T. Douglas Price (US), Angela Simalcsik (RO), Luca Sineo (IT), Mario Šlaus (HR), Vladimir Slavchev (BG), Petar Stanev (BG), Andrej Starović (CS), Tamás Szeniczey (HU), Sahra Talamo (DE), Maria Teschler-Nicola (AT), Corinne Thevenet FR), Ivan Valchev (BG), Frédérique Valentin (FR), Sergey Vasilyev (RU), Fanica Veljanovska (MK), Svetlana Venelinova (BG), Elizaveta Veselovskaya (RU), Bence Viola (CA-RU), Cristian Virag (RO), Joško Zaninović (BG), Steve Zäuner (DE), Philipp W. Stockhammer (DE), Giulio Catalano (IT), Raiko Krauß (DE), David Caramelli (IT), Gunita Zariņa (LV), Bisserka Gaydarska (GB), Malcolm Lillie (GB), Alexey G. Nikitin (US), Inna Potekhina (UA), Anastasia Papathanasiou (GR), Dušan Borić (US), Clive Bonsall (GB), Johannes Krause (DE), Ron Pinhasi (IE), and David Emil Reich (US) analyzed genome-wide ancient DNA data from 225 individuals who lived in Southeastern Europe and surrounding regions between 12,000 and 500 B.C.E. They documented a west–east cline of ancestry in indigenous hunter-gatherers and, in Eastern Europe, the early stages in the formation of Bronze Age steppe ancestry. They show that the first farmers of Northern and Western Europe dispersed through Southeastern Europe with limited hunter-gatherer admixture, but that some early groups in the southeast mixed extensively with hunter-gatherers without the sex-biased admixture that prevailed later in the north and west. They also show that Southeastern Europe continued to be a nexus between east and west after the arrival of farmers, with intermittent genetic contact with steppe populations occurring up to 2,000 years earlier than the migrations from the steppe that ultimately replaced much of the population of Northern Europe (936). Note: Farming was first introduced to Europe in the mid-seventh millennium B.C.E., and was associated with migrants from Anatolia who settled in the southeast before spreading throughout Europe.

 

c. 6.5 K B.C.E.

Aurochs, ancestor of domestic cattle, would be domesticated in the next two centuries if not earlier (Obre I, Yugoslavia). This was the last major food animal to be tamed for use as a source of milk, meat, power, and leather in the Old World.

 

c. 6 K B.C.E.

The production of cheese is thought to have originated in Southwestern Asia (796).

 

“The opium poppy, the source of both morphine and heroin, seems to have been domesticated by Old European farmers in the Western Mediterranean area” (1168).

The Sumerians, of lower Mesopotamia, are the first culture known to have used opium. Their name for "poppy" translates to "flower of joy"—a name that almost certainly indicates that opium was used recreationally.

 

Samuel Noah Kramer (US) reported that Sumerian cuneiform tablets list various drugs to be used in the treatment of common ailments (798).

 

c.5-4.5 K B.C.E.

E. Smith (GB) found a bladder stone from a 4.5 K – 5 K year-old mummy in El Amrah, Egypt (960; 1247).

 

c. 5.4-5 K B.C.E.

Patrick E. McGovern (US), Donald L. Glusker (US), Robert A. Moreau (US), Alberto Nuñez (US), Curt W. Beck (US), Elizabeth Simpson (US), Eric D. Butrym (US), Lawrence J. Exner (US), Mary M. Voigt (US), and Edith C. Stout (US) found the oldest evidence for the existence of wine. It came from wine jars at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Northern Zagros Mountains of Iran. These are Neolithic villagers in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now Northwestern Iran. Evidence of wine was found in jars that were once placed along the kitchen walls of a mud-brick structure. The wine may have resembled Greek retsina. Recent chemical and related tests of a yellowish residue found in the jars point to wine. First, salts of tartaric acid, found naturally in large amounts only in grapes, were identified. Secondly, resin from the terebinth tree, used in antiquity to preserve wine, was also discovered. Additionally, the jars had narrow necks and stoppers were found nearby (943; 944).

 

c. 4.5-2.5 K B.C.E.

Bettina Schulz Paulsson (SE) analyzed 2,410 radiocarbon dates and highly precise chronologies for megalithic sites and related contexts. The results argue for a maritime mobility and intercultural exchange from 4500 B.C.E. to 2500 B.C.E. favoring the transfer of the megalithic concept over sea routes emanating from Northwest France, and for advanced maritime technology and seafaring in the megalithic Age (1068).

 

c. 4.3 K B.C.E.

Babylonian clay tablets detail recipes for making beer in a hymn to the Sumerian goddess of beer, Ninkasi.

 

c. 4 K B.C.E.

The city of Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, in present day Iraq, is given credit for being the first true city of human civilization. Uruk was the main force of urbanization and state formation during the Uruk period, or 'Uruk expansion' (4000–3200 B.C.E.) in the country of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium B.C.E. William Kennett Loftus (GB) visited the site of Uruk in 1849, identifying it as "Erech", known as "the second city of Nimrod", and led the first excavations from 1850 to 1854 (96; 870). Note: The legendary king Gilgamesh, according to the chronology presented in the Sumerian King List, ruled Uruk in the 27th century B.C.E. Writing may have originated in Uruk around 3300 B.C.E.

 

The Egyptian kingdoms were controlling the production of wine and other fermented drinks (750).

 

Solomon H. Katz (US) and Mary M. Voigt (US) reported that direct evidence of beer consumption comes from a stamp seal from Tepe Gawra in Northwest Iraq; it shows two figures drinking beer using traditional straws and container (768).

 

c. 3.7 K B.C.E.

A skeleton from ancient Egypt unearthed near Cairo, showed a marked shortening of the left leg consistent with poliomyelitis (1503).

 

Theis Z. T. Jensen (DK), Jonas Niemann (DK), Katrine Højholt Iversen (DK), Anna K. Fotakis (DK), Shyam Gopalakrishnan (DK), Åshild J. Vågene (DK), Mikkel Winther Pedersen (DK), Mikkel-Holger S. Sinding (DK), Martin R. Ellegaard (DK), Morten E. Allentoft (DK), Liam T. Lanigan (DK), Alberto J. Taurozzi (DK), Sofie Holtsmark Nielsen (DK), Michael W. Dee (DK), Martin N. Mortensen (DK), Mads C. Christensen (DK), Søren A. Sørensen (DK), Matthew J. Collins (DK), M. Thomas P. Gilbert (DK), Martin Sikora (DK), Simon Rasmussen (DK), and Hannes Schroeder (DK) presented a complete ancient human genome and oral microbiome sequenced from a 5.7 K year-old piece of chewed birch pitch from Denmark. They sequenced the human genome to an average depth of 2.3× and found that the individual who chewed the pitch was female and genetically more closely related to western hunter-gatherers from mainland Europe than hunter-gatherers from Central Scandinavia. They also found that she likely had dark skin, dark brown hair and blue eyes. In addition, they identified DNA fragments from several bacterial and viral taxa, including Epstein-Barr virus, as well as animal and plant DNA, which may have derived from a recent meal (742).

 

3.3 K B.C.E.

Felix Eijgenraam (NL) and Alun Anderson (NL) described a 4 K-year-old Bronze Age man (nicknamed Ötzi) found frozen since his death in the Italian Alps. It is hoped that this body—found by Helmut and Erika Simon— will shed light on the racial structure and culture of early Europe (478). Note: A subsequent radiocarbon analysis performed on Ötzi found that he was even older than 4,000 years. Radiocarbon dating determined that the iceman was about 5,300 years old, dating to 3300 B.C.E. This meant that Ötzi lived during the era of history known as the Copper Age, the transition period between the Neolithic, or the "New Stone Age," and the late Bronze Age.

The Copper Age (3500 B.C.E. to 1700 B.C.E.), also known as the Chalcolithic period, represents the time when the populations of what is now Europe began to make widespread use of metals while still using stone tools but had not yet smelted copper and tin to make bronze. It was also a time when the first complex social hierarchies developed and populations began to erect large, monumental structures made of stone — the famous megalithic tombs, standing stones and dolmens of Europe.

Leopold Dorfer (AT), Maximilian Moser (AT), Frank Bahr (DE), Konrad Spindler (AT), Eduard Egarter-Vigl (IT), Sonia Guillen (PE), Gottfried Dohr (AT), and Thomas Kenner (AT) reported that the Bronze Age “Ice Man,” (see above) found in the Italian Alps near the Austrian border, possesses many "tattoos" corresponding very near or on acupuncture points and meridians, including the 'master point for back pain'. If these are acupuncture sites then this is the oldest known example of such treatment (459). See, Shen Nung c. 2.7 K B.C.E.

 

Eugen Hollander (DE) reports that the characteristic signs of amputation have been found in prehistoric bones and that Bronze Age surgical saws and files were plentiful everywhere, from Egypt to Middle Europe (689).

 

3.2 K B.C.E.

David G. Mandelbaum (US) found documentary evidence of alcoholic beverages written in Sumerian around 3.2 K. It most certainly concerns beer rather than wine production and employs a specific pictograph for beer itself (905). Beer was very likely produced much earlier than this in the Eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia.

Carvings in the tombs of the Old Kingdom at Sakkara, Egypt (ancient Memphis) depict methods for producing wine by fermentation, c. 2.2 K.

 

c. 3 K B.C.E.

Rosamund M. J. Cleal (GB), Karen E. Walker (GB), and Richard Montague (GB) radiocarbon dated the first phase of Stonehenge, the outer ditch, which lies far outside the iconic stone structure. The ditch forms a nearly complete circle with an earthen bank on the inner side. (Now the bank is almost level with the ground due to age.) Radiocarbon dating of material found in the ditch in 1993-94 suggests it was built more than five thousand years ago, somewhat before 3 K (318).

 

Lara M. Cassidy (IE), Ros Ó Maoldúin (IE), Thomas Kador (GB), Ann Lynch (IE), Carleton Jones (IE), Peter C. Woodman (IE), Eileen Murphy (GB), Greer Ramsey (GB), Marion Dowd (IE), Alice Noonan (IE), Ciarán Campbell (IE), Eppie R. Jones (GB), Valeria Mattiangeli (IE), and Daniel G. Bradley (IE), from their survey of ancient Irish genomes, suggested that a man buried in Newgrange passage tomb in Ireland (c. 3 K) belonged to a dynastic elite. Their analyses allowed them to confirm that his parents were first-degree relatives. Matings of this type (e.g. brother-sister unions) are a near universal taboo for entwined cultural and biological reasons. The only confirmed social acceptances of first-degree incest are found among the elites— typically within a deified royal family. By breaking the rules, the elite separates itself from the general population, intensifying hierarchy and legitimizing power. Public ritual and extravagant monumental architecture often co-occur with dynastic incest, to achieve the same ends (281).

 

Edwin Smith (US), in 1862, obtained from an Egyptian artifacts dealer what became known as the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. It reveals that the ancient Egyptians are responsible for the oldest written record using the word brain and have provided the first written accounts of the anatomy of the brain, the meninges (coverings of the brain) and cerebrospinal fluid. This document was written around the year 1.7 K B.C.E. but is based on texts that go back to about 3 K B.C.E. and is considered to be the first medical document in the history of mankind. The 48 cases mentioned in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus concern:

 

 27 head injuries (cases #1-27)

 6 throat and neck injuries (cases #28-33)

 2 injuries to the clavicle (collarbone) (cases #34-35)

 3 injuries to the arm (cases #36-38)

 8 injuries to the sternum (breastbone) and ribs (cases #39-46)

 1 injury to the shoulder (case #47)

 1 injury to the spine (case #48)

This papyrus contains the first known reference to wound closure by suturing, a statement translated as, “Thou shouldst draw together for him his gash with stitching." advice for infected wounds includes a recommendation to apply a decoction of willow (which contains salicin) and astringents of copper and sodium salts. There is also a mention of breast cancer.

Case #31 refers to the spinal cord injury as follows: “If thou examinest a man having a dislocation in a vertebra of his neck, shouldst thou find him unconscious of his two arms (and) his two legs on account of it, while his phallus is erected on account of it, (and) urine drops from his member without his knowing it; his flesh has received wind; his two eyes are bloodshot; it is a dislocation of a vertebra of his neck extending to his backbone which causes him to be unconscious of his two arms (and) his two legs.”

A mixture of grease and honey is recommended to prevent infection from occurring in an open wound (225).

 

Esmond Ray Long (US) reported that from investigations on the mummies of ancient Egypt we know that bone tumors and tuberculosis of the spine occurred, that osteomyelitis and arthritis deformans were common, that, arteriosclerosis of the senile (atheromatous type with deposit of calcium salts) was at least as frequent as it is with us, and possibly more so, and that pneumonias, anthracosis, pleurisies, renal atrophies and abscesses, splenomegalies and gallstones troubled or cut off the Pharaohs and priests of Ammon, with the same kind of gross and microscopic change to be seen in the fresher human clay of the twenty-first century (873).

Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB) was the first to identify inflammatory diseases of the joints among Egyptian mummies, thereby describing the presence of arthritis and spondylitis in an atypically young Egyptian population. His examination of the internal organs found that arteriosclerosis with calcification was also common (1172-1174). Note: Ruffer originated paleopathology

 

Among disasters mentioned in the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh as preferable to the Flood was visitation from the god of pestilence, and an Egyptian text of about the same age compares fear of Pharaoh with fear of the god of disease in a year of pestilence (1109).

 

Samuel Noah Kramer (US) reported that Sumerian cuneiform tablets list various drugs to be used in the treatment of common ailments (798).

 

The first description of what was probably hepatitis was found in Sumeria with the first description of jaundice on clay tablets that were the first handbook of medicine. The etiological agent was a devil name Ahhazu who attacked the liver, which in those days was the home of the soul (1069; 1070).

 

Hindu physicians in the Ayur-Veda developed the first clinical test for diabetes. They observed that flies and ants were attracted to the sweet tasting urine of people afflicted with certain diseases (1471).

 

The Egyptians were using frayed, fibrous chew sticks as a form of toothbrush. Toothpaste was first used c. 2 K (1039).

 

Imhotep (EG) is the earliest physician (magician-physician) to be recorded by name (264).

 

c. 2.7 K B.C.E.

Shen Nung; Pinyin Shen Nong; Yen Ti (CN) was the second of China's mythical emperors. He is credited with inventing the cart and plow, taming the ox and yoking the horse, teaching his people to clear the land with fire, establishing a stable agricultural society in China, and prescribing the use of seaweed for the treatment of goiter. His catalog of 365 species of medicinal plants became the basis of later herbological studies. It is also claimed that he originated acupuncture (866; 1128). Note: This is likely the earliest use of an iodine containing substance to treat goiter.

 

2.641 K B.C.E.

Ménes of Memphis (Aha), founding Pharaoh of the 1st Dynasty of Egypt, died following a hornet sting or being trampled by a hippopotamus. This may be the first recorded allergic reaction (anaphylactic shock) (906). The confusion arises because the ancient Egyptian word for hornet and hippopotamus are the same.

 

c. 2.6 K B.C.E.

The Egyptians, in approximately 2.6 K, were lucky enough to have a sufficient amount of wild yeasts in the air from the beer brewing to accidentally discover its uses in leavening bread. Workers were often paid in loaves of bread. Paintings in the pyramids show that the dead were buried with loaves of bread, to provide sustenance in the afterlife. (The British Museum has one of these loaves--4 K years old!)

 

c. 2.5 K B.C.E.

Egyptians described suturing of an esophageal wound in the Smith Papyrus (3 K-2.5 K). One case titled "Instruction concerning a wound of the throat" states: "If thou examines a man having a gaping in his throat, piercing through his gullet; if he drinks water he chokes, it comes out of the mouth of the wound; it is greatly inflamed so that he develops fever from it, thou should draw together that wound with stitching." This is the first recorded use of sutures. In World War II, c. 4,000 years later, we began to repair esophageal wounds; no such repairs were reported in World War I (227).

 

2.4 K B.C.E.

The ancient Egyptians named some 202 different kinds of plants in hieroglyphics (877).

 

c. 2.3 K B.C.E.

A Chinese rice beer, kiu, is mentioned. It was made from barley, wheat and spelt, as well as rice (1071).

 

c. 2.277 K B.C.E.

Raúl Patrucco (PE), Raúl Tello (PE), and Duccio Bonavia (PE) found Ascaris lumbricoides eggs in human coprolites from Peru (700; 1062).

 

c. 2.2 K B.C.E.

The first illustration of a surgical procedure is a bas-relief found in a tomb in Sakkara, Egypt. It depicts a circumcision scene (633).

 

c. 2.25 K B.C.E.

From Nippur, Babylonia a clay tablet reveals a remedy for pain of dental cavities. The tooth cement used was made by mixing henbane seed with gum.

 

c. 2.04-1.783 K B.C.E.

One of the earliest written records of a urine-based pregnancy test can be found in an ancient Egyptian document, the Berlin Papyrus. “Means for knowing if a woman will give birth or will not give birth: (Put) some barley and some wheat (into two bags of cloth) which the woman will moisten with her urine every day, equally barley and grain in the two bags. If both the barley and the wheat sprout she will give birth. If (only) the barley germinates it will be a boy, if it is the wheat, which alone germinates it, will be a girl. If neither germinates she will not give birth.” Testing of this theory in 1963 found that 70 percent of the time, the urine of pregnant women did promote growth, while the urine of non-pregnant women and men did not. Scholars have identified this as perhaps the first test to detect a unique substance in the urine of pregnant women and have speculated that elevated levels of estrogens in pregnant women’s urine may have been the key to its success (578; 843; 1457).

Leprosy is mentioned in the Brugsch Papyrus of Egypt (242). Note: The Brugsch Papyrus, also known as the Greater Berlin Papyrus, or simply Berlin Papyrus is an important ancient Egyptian medical papyrus considered a copy of a much older medical treatise from the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 B.C.E.).

 

c. 2 K B.C.E.

" Diagnostic procedures for injuries and diseases were common and extensive in Egyptian medical practice. The physicians consulted texts and made their own observations. Each physician listed the symptoms evident in a patient and then decided whether he had the skill to treat the condition. If a priest determined that a cure was possible, he reconsidered the remedies or therapeutic regimens available and proceeded accordingly." (258)

 

Felipe Guhl (CO), Carlos Jaramillo (CO), Roxana Yockteng (CO), Gutavo adolfo Vallejo (US), and Felipe Cardenas-Arroyo (CO) detected Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in the heart and esophagus of mummified bodies from Peru and Northern Chile dating from 2 K B.C.E. to 1.4 C.E. (618). Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas (American trypanosomiasis).

 

Descriptions of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis, known as oriental sore, are found on tablets in the library of King Ashurbanipal from the 7th century B.C.E., some of which are thought to have been derived from earlier texts from 1.5-2.5 K B.C.E. (910).

 

Emily E. Stevens (US), Thelma E. Patrick (US), and Rita Pickler (US) reported that wet nursing began as early as 2K B.C.E. and extended until the 20th century. Throughout this time period, wet nursing evolved from an alternative of need (2K B.C.E.) to an alternative of choice (950 B.C.E. to 1.8K C.E.). Wet nursing is discussed in the Egyptian Papyrus Ebers, in ancient Greece, The Bible (Moses had a wet nurse), ancient Rome and many texts from the middle ages and later.

In 1865, chemist Johann Justus von Liebig (DE) developed, patented, and marketed an infant food, first in a liquid form and then in a powdered form for better preservation. In 1865, Justus von Liebig (DE) devised Liebig's formula—consisting of cow's milk, wheat and malt flour, and potassium bicarbonate. It was considered the perfect infant food .

The differences in digestion and absorption of breastfeeding versus formula-feeding have been linked to key issues involving poor child health outcomes. Three key issues are atopy, diabetes mellitus, and childhood obesity (1298).

 

 The Rgveda describes a healed tracheostomy incision (975).

 

As early as the second millenium, but primarily in the first millenium, Babylonian physicians were recording on cuneiform tablets diagnoses of kidney and urinary tract diseases and their cures (571). Note: "If a man's urine constantly drips and he is not able to hold it back, his bladder swells and he is full of wind, his urine duct is full of blisters; in order to cure him, bray puqutu, crush it in pressed oil, and [blow] it into his penis through a bronze tube." ref

 

Anonymous (Babylonian) “If the tips of [the patient's] fingers are falling off and are black, he will die” (1466). Doubtless this describes very serious gangrene.

 

Domestication of the silkworm in China

 

Arthur John Evans (GB) unearthed the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete. Based on the structures and artefacts found there and throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, Evans found that he needed to distinguish the Minoan civilization from that of Mycenaean Greece. Evans was also the first to define Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B, as well as an earlier pictographic writing (494-496). Michael George Francis Ventris (GB), in 1952, deciphered the Minoan Linear B script and showed it to be Greek in its oldest known form; the Linear A script is yet to be deciphered. Note: The Minoans flourished between 2000 and 1500 B.C.E.

 

c. 1.9 K B.C.E.

From the Mesopotamian Laws of Eshnunna comes this statement: “If a dog is mad and the authorities have brought the fact to the knowledge of its owner; if he does not keep it in and it bites a man and causes his death, then the owner shall pay two-thirds of a mina (40 shekels) of silver. If it bites a slave and causes his death, he shall pay 15 shekels of silver.” (1492)

 

Wild or domesticated carnivores belonging to the family Felidae (cats) were kept in a captive or semi-domesticated state by the Egyptians (1497).

 

c. 1.85 K B.C.E.

The Petrie Papyri; Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob, contains the oldest written reference to birth control measures that has been found to date. It refers to a pessary (vaginal suppository) of crocodile dung and fermented dough (612).

 

c. 1.8 K B.C.E.

Although the Code of Hammurabi mentions the practice of hand pollinating date palms, the sexuality of plants was not understood until 1694. This Code also includes a set of rules for the regulation of both surgical practices and the surgeon’s fees. If a physician healed a man's broken bone, the patient owed his doctor five shekels. But if the healer accidently killed a patient of high status during an operation, his hands would be cut off (630). See, Civitas Hippocratica, c. 900 for surgeon’s fees.

 

c. 1.7 K B.C.E.

An early example of ancient Indian plant classification is found in the Rigveda, a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns from about 3700–3100 B.P. Plants are divided into vṛska(trees), osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and virudha (creepers), with further subdivisions. The sacred Hindu text Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes: visakha(spreading branches), manjari (leaves with long clusters), sthambini (bushy plants), prastanavati (which expands); ekasṛnga (those with monopodial growth), pratanavati (creeping plants), amsumati (with many stalks), and kandini (plants with knotty joints).

 

 

c. 1.55 K B.C.E..

George Moritz Ebers (DE) obtained an Egyptian papyrus now referred to as the Papyrus Ebers. The papyrus was discovered about 1862 and subsequently purchased by Ebers in Luxor, Thebes, in 1873. In this medical treatise is recorded the use of castor oil as a cathartic, sea onion (Urginea scilla maritima) to treat dropsy, a remedy to prevent the excessive crying of children which was probably like paregoric, extract from acacia as a contraceptive, and red squill a rat poison. These are all plant products. A disease most likely to be diabetes was described. Tetanus is described. Parasitic worms such as Dracunculus (Guinea worm) and what was likely schistosomiasis are also mentioned. Regarding abscesses it states, “If you examine a swelling of pus in any limb of a man and you find it [with] its head raised and it is enclosed and it is rounded, you shall say concerning it: ‘a swelling of pus, an illness which will be treated by me with the knife treatment.’ There is something in it like mucus. Something comes forth like wax. It makes a pocket. If anything [remains] in its pocket, it recurs.” A relationship between heartbeat and the peripheral pulse is noted. It is recommended that night-blindness be treated with raw liver, a rich source of vitamin A (retinol)—case 57 in the Papyrus Ebers.

"If you examine a man because of suffering in his stomach, and he suffers in his arm, his breast and the side of his stomach, one says concerning him: It is the wadj-disease. Then you shall say concerning it: Something has entered his mouth. Death is approaching." Doubtless this is a description of coronary artery disease (250; 474).

Studies of Egyptian mummies have revealed that atherosclerosis and arterial calcification were relatively common 3.5 K years ago (1265). The writer of the Ebers papyrus clearly identified arterial aneurysms, probably peripheral aneurysms, and recommended the following treatment: “Treat it with a knife and burn it with a fire so that it bleeds not too much” (128).

 

The earliest credible clinical evidence of smallpox (red plague) is found in the smallpox-like disease in medical writings from ancient India (1256).

 

1.552 K B.C.E.

Hesy-Ra (EG) observed that there was a mysterious illness which caused patients to weaken and wither away, and one of the symptoms was frequent urination (which we now know is a major symptom of diabetes) (9).

 

c. 1.5 K B.C.E.

Treatments for urinary stones were mentioned in ancient Egyptian medical writings from 1500 B.C.E.(960; 1247)

 

c. 1.4 K B.C.E.

Ayurvedic medicine, native to India, came into existence and is translated as the “science of living.” Goiters were mentioned by the designation “galaganda” and were seen as “two encapsulated small or big swellings in the anterior angle of the neck, which hang like the scrotum” (985).

 

c. 1.358-1.34 K B.C.E.

Akhenaten (EG), pharaoh of Egypt for 18 years, was thought because of his physique in paintings to be the first recorded Klinefelter's syndrome case in history. He also became the first known monotheistic ruler in history when he established Aten (the sun god) as the one-and-only god of Egypt (899).

Medical analysis of Akhenaten's body, including DNA tests, concluded that his appearance was not due to genetic disorders.

 

c. 1.3 K B.C.E.

Zahi Hawass (EG), Yehia Z. Gad (EG), Somaia Ismail (EG), Rabab Khairat (DE), Dina Fathalla (EG), Naglaa Hasan (EG), Amal Ahmed (EG), Hisham Elleithy (EG), Markus Ball (DE), Fawzi Gaballah (EG), Sally Wasef (EG), Mohamed Fateen (EG), Hany Amer (EG), Paul Gostner (IT), Ashraf Selim (EG), Albert Zink (DE), and Carsten M. Pusch (DE) used genetic fingerprinting to construct a 5-generation pedigree of Pharoah Tutankhamun's immediate lineage. The KV55 mummy and KV35YL were identified as the parents of Tutankhamun. No signs of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley-Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome were found, but an accumulation of malformations in Tutankhamun's family was evident. Several pathologies including Köhler disease II were diagnosed in Tutankhamun; none alone would have caused death. Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun's. These results suggest avascular bone necrosis in conjunction with the malarial infection as the most likely cause of death in Tutankhamun. Walking impairment and malarial disease sustained by Tutankhamun is supported by the discovery of canes and an afterlife pharmacy in his tomb (645).

 

The earliest documentation of creating eunuchs in China dates back to about 1300 B.C.E. The Chinese eunuch system, with several thousand's existing at a time, continued until the end of the imperial period in 1912. 'Licensed surgeons' just outside the imperial court in Beijing performed the operation by cutting off testes and penis. About 25% of the volunteers did not survive this bloody operation. These eunuchs had no beard growth and sparse body hair and frequently developed kyphosis as a clear sign of osteoporosis (1003).

 

An ancient ruler of Anyang (CN) asked, "Will this year have pestilence, and will it be deaths?" (946).

 

c. 1.27 K B.C.E.

 

The “fiery serpent” was very likely the “Guinea worm” (Dracunculus medinensis) (803).Even before Greeks, there are mentions of treatment of dracunculiasis in Syria and India where a stick was used to wind around the worm as it emerged from a lesion. This resembles with the rod of Asclepius.

 

c. 1.25-1 K B.C.E.

Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB) discovered and identified Shistosoma hematobium bilharzia-calcified eggs in the kidneys of Egyptian mummies dating from 1.25 K-1 K B.C.E., revealing for the first time the existence of schistosomiasis in ancient Egypt (1171; 1174). Note: This finding is generally regarded as the beginning of paleoparasitology.

 

c. 1.2 K B.C.E.

Ancient Chinese literature from 1.2 K B.C.E. mentions parasitic potter wasps that are misinterpreted as the stepfathers of caterpillars (762).

 

c. 1.157 K B.C.E.

Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB) analyzed the mummified remains of Rhamses (Ramses) V, Egyptian pharoah from 1153-1157 B.C.E., and found that he suffered from smallpox (red plague) (5; 696; 924; 1172; 1174).

 

According to Homer’s Odyssey the daughter of Zeus cast a drug (likely opium) into wine "to assuage suffering and to dispel anger, and to cause forgetfulness of all ills."

 

c. 1 K B.C.E.

Samuel (Hebrew) records that an epidemic was visited upon the Philistines as punishment for the seizure of the Ark of the Covenant. The cause of the epidemic was most likely dysentery (bloody flux) leading to severe cases of hemorrhoids and anal bleeding (793; 1182).

 

Grafton Elliot Smith (GB), Marc Armand Ruffer (FR-GB), and Karl Sudhoff (DE) described Pott's disease (a kind of tuberculous arthritis of the intervertebral joints) in another Egyptian mummy, opening the debate about the occurrence of tuberculosis in ancient times (1308).

 

There were numerous techniques of variolation to treat smallpox (red plague). The Chinese avoided direct contact with the sick; instead the child was induced to inhale a powder made from the crusts shed by a recovering patient. In the Near East and in Africa fresh material from a diseased patient’s pustules was rubbed into a cut or scratch in the skin of the person being immunized (594; 895; 993).

 

c. 930 B.C.E.

Samuel (Hebrew) describes how 70,000 people in Judah and Israel were killed by a pestilence as punishment for David’s sin of numbering the people. (David, although he begged the Lord to do so, was not punished for this transgression, i.e., sovereign immunity) (1183).

 

c. 850-550 B.C.E.

Homer (GR) seems to have realized the true origin of flies that arose in putrefying carcasses. In the Iliad he says:

“Yet fear I for Menoetius’ noble Son

Lest in his spear-inflicted wounds the flies

May gender worms and desecrate the dead

And, life extinct, corruption reach his flesh.”

Also, in the Iliad, Achilles calls Hector a “rabid dog”.

Homer (GR) mentions the use of sulfur as a pesticide (fungicide) against plant disease (694).

 

The mule is mentioned in Homer’s Iliad, “ . . . and before them went the mules; And ever upward, downward, sideward and aslant they fared” (694).

 

c. 775 B.C.E.

Isaiah (Hebrew) recalls the fatal visitation that “slew in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000” overnight, and caused the Assyrian king, Sennacherib, to withdraw from Judah without capturing Jerusalem (730).

 

c. 766 B.C.E.

Amos of Tekoa (Hebrew) says, “I struck you with blight and searing wind; your many gardens and vineyards, your fig trees and olive trees the locust devoured; yet you returned not to me, says the Lord” (1330).

 

c. 740 B.C.E.

Azari´ah (Hebrew), King of Judah, was made leprous by the Lord as a punishment. He remained leprous until his death, forced to live out his days in a house for lepers (quarantined) (1).

 

c. 660 B.C.E.

Archilochus (GR) described phymatiasis (tuberculosis) which apparently included abscesses and tubercles (84).

 

Venerabili D'havantare (IN) in his System Medicine describes an incurable disease called "closing of the throat, arising from phlegm combined with blood." This could hardly be any other disease than diphtheria (1314). Quoted by Morell Mackenzie (898).

 

c. 620 B.C.E.

Elijah (Hebrew) may have performed mouth-to-mouth resuscitation on a child suffering from heat stroke. This was the first example of assisted respiration (2).

 

An Assyrian tablet warns against “a noxious pustule in the ear of grain”. This was very likely ergot (Fr. argo, spur).

In 400 B.C.E the Parsees (followers of Zoroaster) wrote, “Among the evil things created … are noxious grasses that cause pregnant women to drop the womb and die in childbirth” (595). Again, this likely refers to ergot.

Grains infected with the fungus Claviceps purpurea produce a complex mixture of chemicals which, depending on dosage, are associated with ergotism, St. Anthony’s fire, contraction of the uterus and relief of migraine headache.

Adam Lonitzer; Adam Lonicer (DE) wrote that midwives used low doses of ergot to stimulate uterine contraction (875).

John Stearns (US) described the value of ergot, “It expedites lingering parturition, and saves to the accoucheur a considerable portion of time, without producing any bad effects on the patient…. In most cases you will be surprised with the suddenness of its operation…. Since I have adopted the use of this powder I have seldom found a case that detained me more than three hours…. It is a vegetable and appears to be a spurious growth of rye” (1293).

William J. Dieckmann (US) J.B. Forman (US), and G.W. Phillips (US) reported that ergonovine, an alkaloid isolated from ergot, has a powerful action upon contractions of the pregnant uterus (445). It is safe only in the third stage of labor.

Synonyms for ergotism include: St. Anthony's fire, holy fire, evil fire, devil's fire, and saints' fire.

 

c. 610 B.C.E.

Thales of Miletus (GR), the philosopher and geometrician, was the first person to attempt to explain the variety of nature as the modification of something in nature. He believed that all vegetable and animal substances were derived from water.

It was Thales, who observed that yellow amber, when rubbed, had the power to attract light objects, such as feathers. The word electricity is derived from the Greek word for amber (1454).

Western philosophy and science begin with Thales (1179).

Erwin Schrödinger (AT) reasoned that science had begun at Ionia, the western fringe of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the islands off the coast. According to him there are three main reasons why science began here. First, the region did not belong to a powerful state, which are usually hostile to free thinking. Second, the Ionians were a seafaring people, who had to solve practical problems— navigation, means of transport, water supply, and handicraft techniques. Third, the area was not ‘priest-ridden’; there was not, as in Babylon or Egypt, a hereditary, privileged priestly caste with a vested interest in the status quo (1218).

 

600 B.C.E.

The Sushruta Samhita tells of nasal reconstruction. The mutilation of the nose was rampant as a form of punishment in the past and this necessitated skin grafting for the repair of the mutilated nose (66; 999; 1313).

 

c. 580 B.C.E.

Anaximander (GR) saw spontaneous generation as a unique historical event, followed by the transmutation of and evolution of different forms. He held that the human young need a long period of care and protection, therefore had man always been as he is now, he could not have survived. Ergo man must once have been different, that is, he must have evolved from an animal which can fend for itself more quickly. He went on to state that man derives from the fish of the sea, and this he backed up by observations on fossil remains and on how sharks feed their young. Anaximander also theorized the existence of four basic elements, which were earth, air, fire, and water (758; 1228).

 

c. 570-480 B.C.E.

Xenophanes (GR) observed that fossils of seashells are sometimes found on mountain heights. From this he concluded that the sea at one time covered the material of the mountains (1488).

 

 

c. 550 B.C.E.

Cyrus the Great, King of Persia (550-529 B.C.E.), who established a board of health and a medical dispensary for his citizens, had water drawn from a designated stream then "boiled, and very many four-wheeled wagons drawn by mules carry it in silver vessels, following the king whithersoever he goes at any time" (661).

 

Susruta (Hindu) wrote the Sushruta Samhita, in which he mentions dissection of the human body, leprosy, scurvy, diabetes (he noted the difference between thin people who develop the disease at a young age and heavier people who develop diabetes at an older age. He also noted that the older heavier group seemed to live longer. This method of classifying diabetics remains with us today), heart pain which may be angina pectoris, phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis), many diseases of the eye, couching or reclination of cataracts (the cataractous lens was displaced away from the pupil to lie in the vitreous cavity in the back of the eye), removal of iron from the eye with a magnet, and a Caesarean section procedure. Many medicinal plants are mentioned and some specific drugs and chemicals such as Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), opium, cinnamon, ginger, chenopodium, croton oil, castor oil, pomegranate, Cannabis indica (cannabis), solanum, acacia, aconite, cassia, powders of Caesaepinia sappon (sappon wood), licorice root, Berberis asiatica (barberry), Terra japonica, antimony, copper sulfate, borax, mercury, silver, and sodium carbonate.

There are numerous contributions made by Sushruta to the field of surgery. Surgical demonstration of techniques of making incisions, probing, extraction of foreign bodies, alkali and thermal cauterization, tooth extraction, excisions, trocars for draining abscess draining hydrocele and ascitic fluid. Described removal of the prostate gland, urethral stricture dilatation, vesiculolithotomy, hernia surgery, caesarian section, management of hemorrhoids, fistulae, laparotomy and management of intestinal obstruction, perforated intestines, accidental perforation of the abdomen with protrusion of omentum. It classified details of the six types of dislocations, twelve varieties of fractures and classification of the bones and their reaction to the injuries. It described principles of fracture management, viz., traction, manipulation, appositions and stabilization including some measures of rehabilitation and fitting of prosthetics. It classified eye diseases (76) with signs, symptoms, prognosis, medical/surgical interventions and cataract surgery. Description of method of stitching the intestines by using ant-heads as stitching material. It was the first to deal with embryology and sequential development of the structures of the fetus. It discussed dissection and the study of human anatomy. It introduced wine to dull the pain of surgical incisions. It enumerates 1120 illnesses and recommends diagnosis by inspection, palpation and auscultation (177; 1252). It is difficult to determine the age of particular aspects of this medical knowledge; some of it is doubtless much older.

 

c. 539 B.C.E.

Persians of the Achaemenid Empire, after their conquest of Babylon in 539 B.C.E. agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the Second Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins", but the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text (31). Note: A significant number of biblical scholars now suggest that the Pentateuch, while describing prehistoric events, was assembled c. 550-529 B.C.E.

 

Moses (Hebrew) brought down upon Egypt "sores that break into pustules on man and beast" (979). Could this have been smallpox (red plague)?

 

Moses (Hebrew) states, “…and all the water of the river was changed to blood. The fish in the river died, and the river itself became so polluted that the Egyptians could not drink its water…” (978). Could this be the first recorded case of red tide?

 

Moses (Hebrew) states that, “Furthermore, a lethal visitation upon Egypt’s firstborn in a single night left "not a house where there was not someone dead" (980).

 

God made Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron, leprous. The Lord ordered that she be shut up—quarantinedoutside the camp for seven days (982).

 

Moses (Hebrew) writes in Numbers 21:8, “And the Lord said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live” (983). Could this be the origin of the caduceus? Note: In 1912 the American Medical Association (AMA) abandoned the caduceus and took Asclepius as the symbol of medicine. Asclepius (also spelled as Asklepios or Aesculapius) was the Greek god of medicine. The original Hippocratic oath starts with “I swear by Apollo the physician and by Asclepius and by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the gods…”. Asclepius is often depicted carrying a staff with one snake wrapped around it. Ancient Greeks believed snakes had healing power. To them snakes represented regeneration (relate to ecdysis or molting of skin in snakes).

Moses (Hebrew) “And the Lord spake unto Moses and Aaron, saying, when a man shall have in the skin of his flesh a rising, a scab, or bright spot, and it be in the skin of his flesh like the plague of leprosy; then he shall be brought unto Aaron the priest, or unto one of his sons the priests: and the priest shall look on the plague in the skin of his flesh: and when the hair in the plague is turned white, and the plague in sight be deeper than the skin of his flesh, it is a plague of leprosy… (981). Note: The skin disease described in Leviticus may not have been what we today call leprosy. Early physicians applied the word lepra to all scaly skin eruptions such as psoriasis.

 

The obstetric chair, first mentioned in the Bible and by Greek writers, appears to be of great antiquity. In Exodus 1:16 Moses (Hebrew) tells us that pharoah commands the hebrew midwives, "When you do the office of a midwife, and see them upon the stools; if it be a son, then ye shall kill him: but if it be a daughter, then she shall live." (983)

 

The use of the primitive chipped flint in ritual circumcision is referred to in Exodus 4:25 where Moses tell us, "Then Zipporah took a sharp stone, and cut off the foreskin of her son, and cast it at his feet, and said, Surely a bloody husband art thou to me." (983)

 

The biblical term zaraath, likely refers to scabies (Exodus 28:34, and Isaiah 3:17) as bathing in the sulfur-rich River Jordan seven times led to a cure (1405). Note: scabies is from the latin scabere (to scratch)

Ferdinand Karl Franz von Hebra (AT) found that the term “elephantiasis graecorum” (Roman for leprosy) was likely scabies in many cases (1405).

 

522 B.C.E.

Democedes founds a medical school at Athens.

 

c. 520 B.C.E.

Alcmaèon; Alkmaeon of Crotona (GR) was one of the first physicians to routinely dissect the human body and made many valuable discoveries in anatomy. He described the optic nerve and Eustachian tube, distinguished arteries from veins, taught that the brain is the center of thought, and refuted the belief that sperm originate from the spinal cord. He suggested that health might be defined as maintenance of equilibrium, or isonomy in the material of the body (874; 1075). See, milieu intériieur of Claude Bernard (FR), 1865 and homeostasis of Walter Bradford Cannon (US), 1926.

 

Plant diseases, most likely blight and mildew of grain, are mentioned in Israel (3; 4).

 

c. 500 B.C.E.

“Everything in the universe is the fruit of chance and necessity.” Democritus (GR) (813).

 

“The first principles of the universe are atoms and empty space; everything else is merely thought to exist. Further, the atoms are unlimited in size and number, and they are borne along in the whole universe in a vortex, and thereby generate all composite things—fire, water, air, and earth; for even these are conglomerations of given atoms.” Democritus (GR) (813).

“The world is made of two parts, the full (pleres, steron) and the empty, the vacuum (cenon, manon). The fullness is divided into small particles called atoms (atomon, that cannot be cut, indivisible). The atoms are infinite in number, eternal, absolutely simple; they are all alike in quality but differ in shape, order, and position. Every substance, every single object, is made up of those atoms, the possible combinations of which are infinite in an infinity of ways. The objects exist as long as the atoms constituting them remain together; they cease to exist when their atoms move away from one another. The endless changes of reality are due to the continual aggregation and disaggregation of atoms.” Democritus (GR) (1190).

Democritus (GR) and Leucippus (GR) were the first to teach that all matter is composed of infinitesimally small particles—the atomic theory. The motions and behavior of the atoms are not the result of the whims of the gods. Even the creation of the universe was a chance event once the atoms had been set into motion (228; 438).

 

“Man does not realize how that which varies is a unity. There is a harmony of opposite tensions as there is one of bow and lyre.” Heraclitus of Ephesus (GR) (659)

 

Plato (GR) discussed abortion as follows: “It is the midwives who have the power to bring on the pains [in childbirth], and also, if they think it fit, to relieve them; they do it by the use of simple drugs, and by singing incantations. In difficult cases, too, they can bring about the birth; or, if they consider it advisable, they can promote a miscarriage” (1084).

 

Leonard Erskine Hill (GB) reported that the Greeks used carotid restriction as an anesthetic for surgery (672).

The ancients knew that compressing the carotid arteries, the principal arteries of the neck, causes loss of consciousness. The Greek word carotid means drowsiness, and carotid artery means the artery of sleep. Pressure on the jugular veins of the neck—the cutthroat veins—likewise causes insensibility. In a passage in his History of Animals, Aristotle says of the jugular veins: "If these veins are pressed externally, men, though not actually choked, become insensible, shut their eyes, and fall flat on the ground" (130; 1153).

 

480 B.C.E.

The "Plague of Xerxes", probably an outbreak of dysentery (bloody flux), hit the Persian army, facilitating its defeat by the Greeks in Asia Minor. The Greek historian Herodotus probably exaggerated its impact, but it is nonetheless significant as one of the first epidemics recorded in a lengthy written account (793).

 

c. 460 B.C.E.

Man is the measure of all things, of those that are in so far as they are, and those that are not in so far as they are not.” Protagoras of Abdera (605).

 

Anaxagoras of Clazomene (GR) was the first to teach that all heavenly bodies were brought into existence by the same processes that formed the earth and that all of these objects are made of the same materials (61).

 

Herodotus (GR) reported artificial pollination of date palms by the Arabs. He also noted that the skulls of slain Egyptian and Libyan soldiers were much thicker and less fragile than those of Persian soldiers. The Egyptians attributed this to the fact that they went bareheaded from birth while the Persians wrapped their heads in turbans. This may be the first reference to a relationship between bone quality and sunlight (660).

 

Herodotus (GR) mentions one of the first examples of mutualism. Egyptian Plovers (Plovianus aegypticus or Hoplopterus armatus) picking leeches from inside the mouths of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), who, in “appreciation” for this service, never harmed the plovers (662).

 

Empedocles of Agrigentum (GR) was the first to teach that the heart is the center of the blood-vessel system. He postulated that all bodies are made from four elements: air, water, earth and fire, with life being derived from them and based on the existence of four essential qualities: heat, cold, moisture, and dryness. Later physicians would attach the four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile to this concept (the doctrine of humors) (481). The Humoral Theory first received explicit discussion in Nature of Man by Polybus, Hippocrates' son-in-law (678).

 

c. 450 B.C.E.

"Blessed is he who contemplates the ageless order of immortal nature, how it is constituted and when and why" Euripides (488).

 

“The vessels communicate with one another and the blood flows from one to another. I do not know where the commencement is to be found, for in a circle you can find neither commencement nor end, but from the heart the arteries take their origin and through the vessel, the blood is distributed to all the body, to which it gives warmth and life; they are the sources of human nature and are like rivers that purl through the body and supply the human body with life; the heart and the vessels are perpetually moving, and we may compare the movement of the blood with courses of rivers returning to their sources after a passage through numerous channels." On the Localities of Man (522; 673; 1452). Note: Here is the first mention of connections between different types of blood vessels transporting blood, as well as a suggestion that blood circulates.

 

"The heart is a powerful muscle . . . [with] two distinct ventricles quite dissimilar; the right is in front . . . is spacious and less firm than the left; it does not reach the apex. The left ventricle is located beneath, exactly behind the left nipple where its beat can be felt; it has a thick wall. The lungs envelop the ventricle . . . [and] thus moderate the excess heat, since [they] are cold and refreshed by respiration. . .. soft and hollow structures surround the ventricle . . . called auricles . . . thanks to them the heart regulates respiration; . . [after the ventricles cease to contract] they may continue to be inflated and deflated isolatedly. . . after resection [of the apex of the ventricles and the upper part of the auricles] two apertures appear in each ventricle. It remains to speak about hidden membranes and of fibers stretched in the ventricles like spider webs completely surrounding the apertures. At the origin of the two arteries [which originate from the ventricles] are placed very ingeniously on the right and on the left side three rounded membranes, with their free edge disposed in semicircle; when these come together, it is admirable to observe how they obstruct the lumen of the arteries. If someone . . . after extracting the heart from a human cadaver, first separates and then brings together the leaflets, neither the injection of water nor of air will force these in the heart; this is particularly true of the left side where the leaflets are built with great precision. With regard to the vessel originating from the right ventricle, it also presents the commissure of the leaflets, but they do not obliterate the orifice completely because they are too weak. This vessel opens up also toward the lung to supply it with blood which serves as its nourishment, whereas it is closed toward the heart, not hermetically sealed, but enough, however, to let some air pass through in small quantity.” Philistion of Locroi (GR) (179; 676). Note: The date of this treatise has been questioned, yet it is ancient and remarkable.

 

Pien Ts’Io (CN) recognized the pulse beat as a diagnostic and prognostic criterion of pathology (712).

 

Caelius Aurelianus (Roman) credits Apollonius Memphites; Apollonius Memfites; Apollonius Stratonicus (EG) with coining the name diabetes for an affliction he considered a form of dropsy. The name he chose was derived from the Ionian Greek verb diabainein, meaning to pass through (dia - through, betes - to go). Caelius Aurelianus’ medical works consist of a translation of Soranus of Ephesus (2nd century) —Tardae [Chronicae Passiones], in five books, and Celeres [Acutae Passiones] in three books. His most famous work, De Morbis Acuts et Chronicis (“Concerning Acute and Chronic Diseases”), is a thorough exposition of classical medical knowledge (101).

John Rollo (GB) was the first to add the adjective mellitus to diabetes when he published a paper entitled, An Account of Two Cases of Diabetes Mellitus. He applied the name mellitus, derived from the Latin and Greek roots for honey, to distinguish diabetes mellitus from other causes of polyuria (excessive urine production) in which the urine has no sweet taste. He termed the other causes of polyuria diabetes insipidus (from the Latin for tasteless), a term still in use today. Rollo applied his understanding of diabetes toward the development of a treatment, which included a high protein, low carbohydrate diet and compounds that would suppress the appetite such as antimony, digitalis and opium. On this regimen, some of his patients' symptoms improved (1157). See, Willis 1684.

 

451 B.C.E.

A severe outbreak of an unidentified disease struck Rome and was recorded by the historians Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnasus. Most likely an epidemic of tuberculosis or anthrax (793).

 

Susruta (Hindu) described a procedure called couching, in which a cataractous lens is displaced with a sharp instrument so that it falls into the vitreous cavity, clearing the visual axis. Since there were no corrective glasses or lenses, vision was still significantly blurred. This earliest written reference to cataract surgery was found in Sanskrit manuscripts dating from the fifth century B.C.E. (8).

 

c. 430 B.C.E.

Thucydides (GR) recognized contagion in the great plague of Athens during the Peloponnesian War. “Appalling too was the rapidity with which men caught the infection; dying like sheep if they attended on one another; and this was the principle cause of mortality. When they were afraid to visit one another, the sufferers died in solitude, so that many houses were empty because there had been no one left to take care of the sick; or if they ventured, they perished, those who aspired to heroism…. No one was ever attacked a second time or not with a fatal result.” This is recognition of specific immunity. The cause of this infection, which killed off a quarter of the Athenian army, cannot be firmly identified with any modern infection (1261). From other sources it is known that Pericles, the leader of the Athenians was a victim of this plague. Note: Suspects include: smallpox (red plague), typhoid, plague, and typhus (camp fever).

Philip A. Mackowiak (US) deduced that smallpox (red plague) was the most likely cause of this plague in Athens (899).

Manolis J. Papagrigorakis (GR), Christos Yapijakis (GR), Philippos N. Synodinos (GR), and Effie Baziotopoulou-Valavani (GR) analyzed teeth recovered from a mass grave dated to 430 B.C.E., underneath Athens. They confirmed typhoid as the probable cause of the plague (182; 1042).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) records an epidemic of jaundice on the island of Thassos, during which the people were first afflicted with fever and vomiting, then developed jaundice and stiffness over the next seven days.The disease was usually fatal in those who did not suffer a fever, but those who did usually survived. This description is almost certainly a viral hepatitis, although it is subtly different from modern forms and thought to be attributable to an extinct viral strain (929). Note: The word icterus (Jaundice) appears for the first time in these writings.

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) states that the liver is the root of the veins and the source of blood and heat: 'Root of veins, liver; root of arteries, heart: from these blood, breath and heat flow out to all parts'. (677)

 

A description of liver disease including jaundice can be found in the Babylonian Talmud of the fifth century B.C.E. as a cause of fever, malaise, lassitude, stomach problems, and sometimes death (1291).

 

c. 410 B.C.E.

“Swellings appeared about the ears…. In all cases they disappeared without giving trouble, neither did any of them come to suppuration, as is common in swellings from other causes. They were of a lax, large, diffused character, without inflammation or pain… In some instances, earlier, and in others later, inflammations with pain seized sometimes one of the testicles, and sometimes both” Hippocrates (19). Note: This is the first recorded epidemic of mumps as described by Hippocrates, who was probably present on the Island of Thasos where the epidemic struck around 410 B.C.E. (793). He also recognized orchitis (inflammation of a testis) as its most frequent complication.

Robert Hamilton (GB) wrote of orchitis in mumps and suggested that the central nervous system was involved (628).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) described the hydatid cyst associated with echinococcosis (19).

 

c. 400 B.C.E.

“Life is short, and the Art long; the occasion fleeting; experience fallacious, and judgment difficult.” Hippocrates (674).

 

Pyrethrum from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum was introduced as an insecticide in Persia (1041).

Hermann Staudinger (DE) and Lavoslav Ružička (NL) identified the active substances (pyrethrins) and their structure from the Dalmatian pyrethrum extract (1292).

 

Nina Helt Nielsen (DK), Peter Steen Henriksen (DK), Renée Enevold (DK), Cartsten Scavenius (DK), Morten Fischer Mortensen (DK), Martin Nordvig Mortensen (DK), and Jan J. Enghild (DK) described the last meal of "Tollund Man", a bog body from Early Iron Age Denmark, his bowl contents were reexamined using new analyses of plant macrofossils, pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs, steroid markers and proteins found in his gut. Some 12-24 hours before he was killed, he ate a porridge containing barley, pale persicaria and flax, and probably some fish. Proteins and eggs from intestinal worms—whipworms, tapeworms, and mawworms—indicate that he was infected with parasites (1001). Note: "Tollund Man", a naturally mummified corpse of a man who lived during the 5th century B.C.E., during the period characterised in Scandinavia as the Pre-Roman Iron Age. He was found in 1950, preserved as a bog body, on the Jutland peninsula, in Denmark and remains the best preserved of the bog people. Common to them is that they show signs of untimely and very violent deaths and that they received an extraordinary burial in a watery place.

cf

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) is the name given to as many as seven Greek physicians of whom the second is regarded as the most famous. He was born on the island of Cos in 460 or 459 B.C.E. and died at Larissa about 375 B.C.E.. He founded a medical school on Cos at which students were taught that disease is a purely physical phenomenon, not ascribable to the gods; that moderation in diet is good, and that cleanliness and rest are important for those recovering from an illness or injury. Illness was regarded as an imbalance of the four: blood, which was made in the liver; phlegm, associated with the lungs; yellow bile, associated with the gall bladder; and black bile, associated with the spleen. The four main diseases characterized by an excess of one of the humors were sanguine (an excess of blood), phlegmatic (excess of phlegm), choleric (excess of yellow bile), and melancholic (excess of black bile). Good health was achieved when the four humors returned to their normal equilibrium concentrations. Bad air was also believed to cause disease when it contained a miasma (pollutant) inimical to mankind. The physician was encouraged to not interfere with the patient’s natural healing process. The lasting fame of the hippocratic approach rests on the fact that it put medicine on a scientific footing. The first rule was the observation of patient followed by the use of principles gradually derived from experience. In this way deductive reason could be brought to bear on the nature of the disease, its course and treatment. This is the source of the famous Aphorismi, short rules which contain at times principles derived from experience and at times conclusions drawn from the same source (675; 677; 679).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) was the first to deal with the anatomy and the pathology of the human spine (921).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) describes herpes labialis (1458).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) describes what was most likely puerperal fever (18).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) mentions oral thrush; aphthae in the mouth (677).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) was the first to advocate the use of ligatures to tie off bleeders (677).

 

The Hippopcratic Treatise states that the heart has four chambers with two auricles and two ventricles and reveals knowledge of the action of the semi-lunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery (717).

 

The Hippopcratic Treatise states that night-blindness can be successfully treated with liver (675; 677).

 

The Hippopcratic Treatise describes empyema is this manner, "Empyema may be recognized in all cases by the following symptoms: In the first place, the fever does not go off, but is slight during the day, and increases at night, and copious sweats intervene, there is a desire to cough, and the patients expectorate nothing worth mentioning, the eyes become hollow…the nails of the hand are bent, the fingers are hot" (675).

 

The Hippocratic Treatise describes gout (675).

 

Hippocrates; Hippocratus (GR) gives a splendid description of a woman from Thasus who suffered from many of the features that we now recognize to be associated with the acute attack of porphyria (675).

 

The Hippopcratic Treatise states that, "Such persons as are seized with tetanus die within four days, or if they pass these they recover" (675).

 

The Hippocratic Treatise describes an epidemic on the island of Thasos. From the description of the disease it was very likely relapsing fever that is caused by the bacterium Borrelia recurrentis (675).

 

The Hippocratic Treatise describes a case of pleuritis (1073).

 

The Hippopcratic Treatise discusses epilepsy as a disturbance of the brain and states that the brain is involved with sensation and is the seat of intelligence. It emphasized that heredity plays an important role in the etiology of epilepsy (675).

 

The Hippocratic Treatise refers to a disease whose symptoms include tertian (every 48 hours) or quartan (every 72 hours) fever and an enlarged spleen. There is a high probability that the disease was malaria (ague) (215).

 

Hippocrates (GR) mentions Queen Anne's Lace, or Wild Carrot, in his writings as a highly effective oral contraceptive and as an abortifacient, i.e., causing abortion (675).

David L. Keenan (US), Arunasalam M. Dharmarajan (AU), and Howard A. Zacur (US) found that Wild Carrot in a rabbits diet results in diminished ovarian progesterone secretion, whereas a metabolite, retinoic acid, stimulates progesterone secretion in the in vitro perfused rabbit ovary (769). It continues to be used to this day as a sort of morning-after contraceptive, with women in parts of the rural United States drinking a teaspoonful of the seeds with a glass of water immediately after sex. Note: Queen Anne's Lace is also known as Mother Die, because if you brought it into your house, according to superstition, your mother would die.

 

Hippocrates (GR) recorded an outbreak of a cough followed by pneumonia and other symptoms, at Perinthus in Northern Greece (now part of Turkey). Several possible identifications have been suggested, including influenza (grippe), whooping cough and diphtheria (Boulogne sore throat) (793).

 

Hippocrates (GR) recommended that food should be thoroughly chewed before swallowing, and consumed in moderation to maintain good health. Ref

 

Bronze, S-shaped, urethral catheters with one terminal eye and size proportionate to age and sex were in common use (288).

 

Chalmers L. Gemmill (US) notes that one of the oldest known effective birth controls was a plant called silphium, a member of the Ferula genus. Apparently, it was extremely effective and was used to extinction by the third or fourth century A.D.(572).

 

c. 396 B.C.E.

There was an epidemic in Carthage, North Africa (Tunisia); likely caused by smallpox or plague (793).

 

c. 355-280 B.C.E.

Praxagoras of Cos (GR) established the diagnostic importance of the pulse and was probably the first to distinguish arteries from veins, believing that the arteries carried air. He created an entero-cutaneous fistula to relieve obstruction of the bowels (1105). See, earlier references to pulse, arteries, and veins.

 

c. 350 B.C.E.

"It is not hyperbole for us to say that all of biology is a footnote to Aristotle. He defined the field, outlined the major problems, and accumulated data to provide answers—he set the course" (971).

 

"It is to Aristotle in the first place that we owe the distinction between those who describe the world in terms of myth and the supernatural, and those who first attempted to account for it by natural causes. The former he called theologi, the latter physici or physiologi, and he ascribes the beginning of the new, physical outlook to Thales and his successors at Miletus, hailing Thales himself as first founder of this kind of philosophy" (622). See, Thales of Miletus, c. 610 B.C.E.

 

"Does the female contribute nothing whatever to generation, merely providing a place where generation may happen; or does it contribute something else, and if so, how and in what manner does it do so?’ … Very often the female conceives although she has derived no pleasure from the act of coitus; Women sometimes derive pleasure from it comparable to the male and also produce a fluid secretion. This fluid, however, is not seminal; There is a discharge from the uterus, which though it happens in some women does not in others. Speaking generally, this happens in fair-skinned women who are typically feminine, and not in dark women of a masculine appearance. This discharge is sometimes on quite a different scale from the semen discharged by the male, and greatly exceeds it in bulk." Aristotle (90).

 

Aristotle (GR) wrote the Historia Animalium, the first monograph on general biology, in which he discussed the structure, breeding habits, reproduction, behavior, ecology, distribution, and relationships of animals. He knew about parthenogenesis. He taught that nature is not capricious and can best be explained by observation rather than belief thus laying the foundation for all scientists who would follow. Aristotle sought to reduce the great diversity of natural phenomena into a comprehensible scheme by looking for unifying principles, without which rational thought is difficult. He maintained that there are natural groups among life forms which can be recognized by their common structure, physiology, behavior, and mode of action; realized that general concepts might emerge from the study of the same phenomenon in a variety of species; developed the concepts of homology versus analogy as a way of comparing life forms; used the term eidos (species) to describe animals that are so alike that they are obviously of the same kind; observed the development of the chick and other eggs and noted that, “development from the egg proceeds in an identical manner in all birds”; recognized the oviparous, ovoviviparous, and viviparous patterns of generation; recognized the fundamental similarity of development in fish, bird, and mammal; argued for a physical basis of inheritance; realized that nails, hair, and horns all form from skin; provided argument and observation to support epigenesis; and suspected that problems of development and regeneration are similar. Aristotle also used the term genos (genus) in a context very similar to the way in which it is used today.

Aristotle (GR) linked consumption of figs and sweet foods with the development of tooth decay.

Aristotle (GR) provided the earliest taxonomic classification of fish, accurately describing 117 species of Mediterranean fish. Furthermore, he documented anatomical and behavioral differences between fish and marine mammals.

Aristotle (GR) was the first to explain deductive reasoning, the science of drawing conclusions from premises in formal syllogisms. He thought this was the basic tool for understanding any subject.

He termed the coelenterates Acalephae or Cnidae (Gk. akalephe, nettle; cnidos, thread) since he knew they could sting; and noted what was probably the larval stage (cysticerci) of the cestode parasite Taenia solium in the tongue of the hog, describing it as “hail.”

He did support some incorrect assumptions such as the belief that many animals arise spontaneously and not from kindred stock. According to him some animals came from dew falling on leaves, ßothers from decaying mud, dung, or timber. Some were supposed to develop in the fur of animals or in the excrement after it had been voided or even while still within the living body. He states that flies come from grubs that develop in the dung that farmers have gathered up in heaps. Fleas, bugs, and lice were supposed to be produced from moisture and filth, and it was believed that some fish proceed from mud, sand, or decayed matter. Eels were thought by Aristotle to come from so-called Earth’s guts that grows in mud and humid ground.

Aristotle (GR) described experiments supporting the concept of internal secretions by the testicles.

Aristotle (GR) postulated an intrinsic directionality, or unfolding process in nature (orthogenesis), which was distilled in his concept of physis. He also inspired the concept of an ascending ladder of perfection, or hierarchy, that later came to be associated with the Latin phrase scala naturae (130).

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (DE), in 1686, would expand upon this subject as the “great chain of being.” The sense of permanence in the chain is crucial to understanding this conception of reality. One does not abandon one's place in the chain; it is not only unthinkable, but generally impossible (845).

 

Androsthenes (GR), a ship's captain serving under Alexander the Great (MK), described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree (226).

 

The earliest record of buildings dedicated as hospitals comes from Mihintale in Sri Lanka. The identification is based on a tenth century inscription found at the site (1121).

 

William H. Jopling (GB) reports there is evidence that leprosy originated in Asia and was probably transported from India to Europe in the 4th century B.C.E. by soldiers returning from the Greek wars of conquest. From Greece it was spread slowly throughout Europe by trade and military expeditions (753).

 

323 B.C.E.

Alexander the Great (MK) very likely died of typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis (899; 1010).

 

c. 320 B.C.E.

Theophrastus of Ereus; Theophrastos of Eresus (GR) produced two great works on plants: Historia Plantarum, and De Causis Plantarum, in which he pursued the classification and physiology of plants. They include descriptions of 500 plants, many of which were promoted as having medicinal use including the first written record of the use of opium (See, Papyrus Ebers, 1500 B.C.E.). In addition to medicinal properties he discussed seeds, grafting, budding, and the effects of disease and weather on plants. He compared the formation of the plant in the seed to the fetus of an animal, something produced by it but not a part of it (1336-1340). These works are the oldest distinctively botanical treatise extant. The plant genus Theophrasta was dedicated to him by Linnaeus in 1740 (1382). He is also commemorated in the family Theophrastaceae.

 

Theophrastus of Ereus; Theophrastos of Eresus (GR) composed a treatise on amphibious fish (1253).

 

c. 300 B.C.E.

"The Lord hath created medicines out of the earth; and he that is wise will not abhor them." Ecclesiasticus 38:4

 

The first ever book on medicinal plants was published in China in 300–200 B.C.E.

 

J. Jansen, Jr. (NL) and Hans J. Over (NL) revealed the presence of the parasitic worm Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) in a 2100 to 2500 year old human refuge mound in Northwest Germany (739).

 

Erasistratus of Julis (of Ceos); Eristratos of Iulis (of Ceos) (GR-EG) explained his Air-Pneuma Theory. He believed in various types of interconnected pneuma, but they had a different course through the body. The first type, vital pneuma, came from air drawn through the trachea that was then changed into lung tissue. The vital pneuma, mixed with blood and then traveled in the arteries to the base of the brain where it was transformed into psychic pneuma. The psychic pneuma, sometimes referred to as animal spirit, aided the functioning of the brain and nerves. Erasistratus held that health and disease and, in fact, the nature of life were intimately connected with the pneuma.

Erasistratus' theory of circulation states that the right side of the heart receives blood and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives air from arteries in the lung and then pumps it throughout the body via the arterial system. Galen (Galeni), physician of Rome, attributes this theory to Greek physician Erasistratus of Julis (551).

Erasistratus of Julis was noted for his anatomical studies and rigorous seeking of causal explanations of diseases. For example, he described the valves of the heart, distinguished sensory and motor nerves, and accurately described the movement of food in the body (761; 1274).

 

Herophilus of Alexandria; Herophilos of Chalcedon; Herofilos of Chalkedon (GR) was probably the first to perform human dissections in public. He was very interested in comparing the human body with that of other animals. He described the brain, noting cerebrum and cerebellum, fourth ventricle, meninges, calamus scriptorius, and the torcular Herophilii; described the brain as the center of the nervous system, demonstrated the caudal extension of the hindbrain, naming it the ‘spinal cord’, and stated that ‘the neura that make voluntary motion possible have their origin in the cerebrum (enkephalos) and spinal marrow’. He divided nerves into sensory and motor, differentiated nerves from tendons, described the liver, pancreas, salivary glands, chyliferous vessels, genital organs, spleen, and eye; naming the retina. He named the duodenum and the prostate; described the ovaries and the tubes leading from them to the uterus. He observed that arteries pulsate and carry blood and are much thicker walled than veins. He regarded the pulse as an indicator of the strength of the heart and counted it with a water clock (549; 864; 967; 1410-1412). See, Praxagoras of Cos, 355-280 B.C.E.

From the time of Herophilus the ancient Greeks believed the cerebral ventricles were where the animal spirits resided and the principal functional elements of the brain. The anterior or lateral ventricles were the receptacles of imagination, information, and sensory input; the middle or third ventricle was the seat of cogitation and judgment; the posterior or fourth ventricle housed the spirits of motion and memory. The liver provided the force for nourishing the body. This was the prevailing viewpoint for nearly 2000 years (1307).

 

Nei Ching [Canon of Medicine] is the greatest Chinese medical classic. It mentions four methods of examination: observation, hearing, inquiry, and palpation of the pulse. It contains a special section on acupuncture (711).

 

Wang Shu-He (CN) wrote a treatise on pulse evaluation. In it he recognizes that decreased heart rate variability is a predictor for sudden death (681).

 

Diocles of Carystus (GR) wrote the first known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy (1379).

 

Alexandria, Egypt was the sight of the greatest museum and library of antiquity. Here also was the first great medical school that included laboratories, libraries and clinics. Ptolemy I, founder of the library and school gave permission for human dissection that allowed knowledge of the structure of the human body to rapidly advance. Religious prejudice had previously prevented the legal dissection of humans (1030). See, Hippocrates, 400 B.C.E.

 

c. 279 B.C.E.

Erasistratus of Julis; Eristratos of Iulis (GR-EG) described how the human brain is divided into a larger (cerebrum) and a smaller (cerebellum) part; noted the convolutions on the brain’s surface and decided that the complexity of the convolutions is related to intelligence. He correctly interpreted the action of both sets of heart valves in relation to the heart beat and thought that all parts of the human body were served by a vein, artery, and nerve. Erasistratus described muscles as organs of contraction and discovered the chyliferous vessels in mesenteries and the epiglottis (485; 556; 864).

 

c. 276-25 B.C.E.

Demetrius of Apamea (SY) was one of the first to discern a difference between diabetes and other causes of polyuria (1410). Apamea is in modern day Syria.

 

c. 275 B.C.E.

Nikandros of Colophon; Nicander of Colophon (EG) wrote two medical poems, Theriaca and Alexipharmac. In Theriaca he describes poisonous animals such as the asp, viper, spider, scorpion, lizard, rat, flies, and some mythological creatures. In Alexipharmaca he mentions poisonous substances such as hemlock, cantharides (Cantharis is a genus of beetle, called the Spanish fly, which produces a lactone of cantharidic acid that will blister the skin. In moderate internal doses it is a diuretic and stimulant to reproductive organs hence its legendary status as the aphrodisiac, Spanish fly. In large doses it is a poison.), hyoscymus (a genus of solanaceous plants, henbane, which is narcotic, mydriatic, and analgesic), aconite, lead, opium, and mushrooms. This is the earliest mention in medical history of lead poisoning. He also describes the therapeutic use of leeches (342). The plant genus Nicandra was dedicated to him in 1763 (21). He is credited with being one of the earliest toxicologists.

 

c. 250-243 B.C.E.

The "Hunpox" epidemic occured in China. It was likely smallpox (red plague) (793).

 

c. 230 B.C.E.

Ammonios; Lithotomos (EG) is the first physician reported to have performed lithotrity. He passed a hook over the stone to secure it in position and then took a thin but blunt instrument “and this when applied to the stone and forcibly struck at the other end, splits it in twain” (287).

 

212 B.C.E.

The Roman army in Syracuse (Sicily) was struck by an infectious disease, perhaps influenza (grippe) described by the historian Livy (793).

 

c. 190 B.C.E.

Marcus Porcius Cato (Roman) wrote De Re Rustica [De Agri Cultura], the first book of botanical interest in the Latin language. It contains much information on the propagation of desirable plant varieties and the various methods of grafting (283). The plant genus Catonia was dedicated to him in 1756 (241).

 

Li Zhaoguo (CN) and Philip Reichart (US) report that a whole system of diagnostic medicine in China dating back thousands of years was based upon a tactile study of the pulse (1136; 1352).

 

c. 150 B.C.E.

“… no essential part of the drink is absorbed by the body while great masses of the flesh are liquefied into urine.”Aretaeus of Cappadocia (88). Note: Aretaeus is credited with coining diabetes as a medical term from the Greek meaning 'siphon.' See, Aurelianus, 450 B.C.E.

 

Aretaios; Aretaeus the Cappadocian (Roman) included detailed descriptions of an unnamed disease in his writings. When describing his patients he referred to them as "koiliakos," which meant "suffering in the bowels." Francis Adams (GB) translated these observations from Greek to English for the Sydenham Society of England in 1856. He gave sufferers the moniker "celiacs" or "coeliacs." Thus Europe uses the spelling coeliac disease with the "o" (20; 88).

 

c. 140 B.C.E.

Agatharchides of Cnidus (GR) refers to the disease now known to be caused by the parasitic nematode Dracunculus medinensis. This disease is called dracontiasis, dracunculiasis, dracunculosis, Medina worm infection, and Guinea worm infection (1304).

 

c. 120 B.C.E.

Ssu-ma Chien (CN) tells us that, "In the area south of the Yangtse the land is low and the climate humid; adult males die young." (1002)

 

Aulus Cornelius Celsus (Roman) reminds us that the idea that tolerance may result from prolonged use of a drug is very old. The story of Mithridates VI (Greek/Persian), King of Pontus dates from before the Christian era. This king, in order to protect himself from the effects of poisons, had a lifelong habit of taking such substances prophylactically, with the result that, when ultimately defeated in battle, he was unable to take his life by poison and was obliged to perish by the sword (289; 594).

 

c. 100 B.C.E.

Asclepiades of Bithynia (GR) advocated humane treatment of mental disorders, he had insane persons freed from confinement and treated them with natural therapy, such as diet and massages. He described a tracheostomy incision for improving the airway (93).

 

c. 95 B.C.E.

Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus) (Roman, 96?–55 B.C.E.) spent his whole life writing one poem (still unfinished), called De Rerum Natura[On the Nature of Things]. The first three books provide a fundamental account of being and nothingness, matter and space, the atoms and their movement, the infinity of the universe both as regards time and space, the regularity of reproduction (no prodigies, everything in its proper habitat), the nature of mind (animus, directing thought) and spirit (anima, sentience) as material bodily entities, and their mortality. The last three books give an atomic and materialist explanation of phenomena preoccupying human reflection, such as vision and the senses, sex and reproduction, natural forces and agriculture, the heavens, and disease. This introduces a detailed description of the great pestilence that devastated Athens during the Peloponnesian War (274; 275; 997).

 

c. 70 B.C.E.

Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil) (70–19 B.C.E.) was a famous Roman poet. His poems Bucolics (42–37 B.C.E.) and Georgics (37–30 B.C.E.) hold much information on animal husbandry and farm life. His Aeneid (published posthumously) has many references to the zoology of his time (923). Note: The plant genus Virgilia was dedicated to him by Lamarck in 1793.

 

c. 58-51 B.C.E.

“To be ignorant of what occurred before you were born is to remain always a child. For what is the worth of human life, unless it is woven into the life of our ancestors by the records of history?” Marcus Tullius Cicero (Roman) (310). De Oratore ad Quintum fratrem libri tres (On the Orator, three books for his brother Quintus)

 

Catuvolcus (DE), a chieftain of the Eburones, committed suicide during the Gallic Wars by taking extracts from the yew tree. This is the first mention in history of what was very likely taxol poisoning (909; 1273).

 

Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (Roman) described how the people of the Psylli tribe of North Africa had the long standing practice of mixing the dried and pulverized poison glands from different venomous snakes and placing them under the skin to produce immunity to snakebite. He fabricated the word immunity from the Latin immunitas and immunis derived from the notion of being exempt from service to the state (883; 1263).

 

c. 50 B.C.E.

Tseen Han Shoo (CN) says, “On passing the Great Big Headache Mountain, and the Little Headache Mountain, the Red Land and the Fever Slope, men's bodies become feverish, they lose color, and are attacked with headache and vomiting; the asses and cattle being all in like condition” (631). Note: This is possibly the earliest reference to high-altitude mountain sickness.

 

Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt (EG), to help her physicians learn about the development of the human embryo through dissection, presented them with maids in various stages of pregnancy and condemned to death (797).

 

46 B.C.E.

"Not to know what happened before you were born is to be a child forever. For what is the time of a man, except it be interwoven with that memory of ancient things of a superior age?" [Nescire autem quid ante quam natus sis acciderit, id est semper esse puerum. Quid enim est aetas hominis, nisi ea memoria rerum veterum cum superiorum aetate contexitur?]. Marcus Tullius Cicero (311; 312).

 

c. 45 B.C.E.

"Nature has planted in our minds an insatiable longing to see the truth." Marcus Tullius Cicero (309).

 

“But for my part I wonder at memory in a still greater degree. For what is it that enables us to remember, what character has it, or what is its origin?… Do we think there is … a sort of roominess into which the things we remember can be poured as if into a kind of vessel? … Or do we think that …memory consists of the traces of things registered in the mind? What can be the traces of words, of actual objects, what further could be the enormous space adequate to the representation of such a mass of material?” Marcus Tullius Cicero (309).

 

Titus Lucretius Carus (Roman), in what is very likely a reference to hypersensitivity says, “What is food to one man may be fierce poison to another” (885).

 

c. 30 B.C.E.

"Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas" ["Happy is the one who has been able to get to know the causes of things"] (1397).

 

Aulus Aurelius Cornelius Celsus (Roman), in the time of Tiberius and Augustus, wrote De Re Medica Libri VIII in which he surveyed the medical sciences from Hippocrates to imperial times. He described peripneumonia (obviously our pneumonia) and spleens so large as to be felt and firm enough to resist pressure; certainly, some of these were the result of malaria (ague). There is mention of a “distemper seated in the large intestine principally affecting that part I mentioned the caecum to be, and accompanied by violent inflammation and vehement pains, particularly on the right side,” yet appendicitis did not enter the death records until after 1880. He describes in this work the practice of needling, or discission, of cataracts, a technique in which the cataract is broken up into smaller particles, thereby facilitating their absorption. He recommended suturing the edges of a fresh wound to seal it. Celsus advised that amputation incision should leave enough healthy skin to close over the tip of the amputated member. Before closure, he removed clotted blood, "for it becomes converted into pus, and by exciting inflammation impedes the agglutination of the wound. Celsus was the first to describe human rabies. He used the term hydrophobia (fear of water). He thought that the saliva of a sick animal transmitted the infection. Celsus was the first to discuss warts. He is possibly the first to mention reconstructive surgery and very likely the first to describe collateral circulation of blood (Celsus 29; Celsus 1814; Celsus 1935; Long 1965).

 

Aulus Aurelius Cornelius Celsus (Roman) in his liber 3, cap. 10 is credited with the famous statement: "Notae vero inflammationis sunt quatuor: rubor et tumor cum calore et dolore" (The signs of inflammation are four: redness, swelling, fever and pain). He reasoned that inflammation was a reaction of tissue to injury (287; 288). Note: A fifth element was later added "loss of organ function" and attributed to Rudolf Virchow (DE) or Thomas Sydenham (GB).

Galen; Galenos; Claudii Galeni; Aelius Galenus; Claudius Galenus; Clarissimus Galen of Pergamon (modern Turkey) (GR-Roman) in the 2nd century A.D. was physician and surgeon of emperor Marcus Aurelius. There is in the writing of Galen mention of a loss of function (functio laesa) which does not apply to phlegmone, i.e., inflammation, whether in its general or specific sense, but rather to disease itself, therefore Galen did NOT assign a fifth sign specifically to inflammation as is commonly claimed (1125).

Hieronymus David Gaubius (DE-NL), c. 1740, proposed that inflammation can promote the “disposition to coagulation” (740).

John Hunter (GB) first used the term angiogenesis to describe the development of growing blood vessels in healing wounds (715).

René-Joachim-Henri Dutrochet (FR) provided the first description of the “sticking” and emigration of white cells—described as “vesicular globules”—through blood vessel walls during acute inflammation (472).

Rudolph Wagner (DE) observed the interaction of leukocytes with the blood vessel wall in the webbed feet of a grass frog using bright field transillumination(1415).

Augustus Volnay Waller (FR-GB) independently discovered the emigration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in inflammation (1424).

Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (DE) in his classic work, Cellularpathologie, advised that “inflammation is the most common pathologic process in tissue caused by a stimulus that evokes changes in cellular parts of the tissue, which might be followed by a loss of function.” To Virchow, inflammation was one of the fundamental manifestations of disease, the others being neoplasia, hyperplasia, hamartoma, malformation, degeneration, and cyst (1395; 1396).

Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (DE) observed that during inflammation there was capillary vasodilation, leakage of plasma, and migration of leukocytes out of blood vessels and into the surrounding tissue (330).

Carl Weigert (DE) confirmed that the well-known cardinal manifestations of inflammation—that is redness, swelling, heat and pain—can mostly be accounted for by altered interactions between the blood and the blood vessels cells (1441)

Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (DE) suggested that the migrated leukocytes leads to pus at the site of injury (331).

Élie Metchnikoff (RU-DE) assigned an active role for the leukocyte in the emigration process, stating that “the migration is effected by the amoeboid power of the leukocytes” (957).

 

Aulus Aurelius Cornelius Celsus (Roman) states, “Now there follows the treatment of fevers, a class of disease which both affects the body as a whole, and is exceedingly common. Of fevers, one is quotidian, another tertian, a third quartan” (288). Doubtless this fever is malarial (ague).

 

27 B.C.E.

Marcus Terentius Varro (Roman) in advice to those about to select a place for a dwelling said, "Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps, both for the reasons given, and because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases" (1386).

 

Marcus Terentius Varro (Roman) wrote Disciplinarum Libri IX [Nine Books of Disciplines], a lost work, in which he outlined nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Later writers omitted the last two arts. The seven liberal arts would later form the basis of modern educational systems in Western culture (266; 864; 1145).

 

c. 20 B.C.E.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (GR) recorded that during a great epidemic those who touched the sick and suffering, while trying to help them, became sick with the same illness (449).

 

c. 10 B.C.E.

Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (Roman) wrote a very large twelve-volume work, which included husbandry, grafting, the use of the hotbed, the treatment of cultivated plants and trees and the use of rennet to make cheese (343). The plant genus Collumella was dedicated to him in 1794 (1178).

 

4 B.C.E.

Herod the Great, King of Judea, Idumaea, Samraritis, Peraea, Heshbon, Gaulantis, Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Gaza, Hippos and Gadara very likely died of hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure (899).

 

c. 1

The Chinese began to treat malaria (ague) with Qing hao (Artemesia annua, called wormwood) and yingzhaosu (1113). The active ingredient from Qing hao is called artemisinin, which is a sesquiterpene peroxide.

 

c. 35

Aulus Cornelius Celsus (Roman) wrote De Medicina in which he recommended cleanliness and urged that wounds be washed and treated with substances now considered to be somewhat antiseptic, such as vinegar and thyme oil. He described plastic surgery of the face, using skin from other parts of the body, enumerated the four cardinal signs of inflammation: heat, pain, redness, and swelling, first described a bronchoceole (a tumour of the neck), and identified cystic types of goiters that were able to be drained.

Divided into three parts, according to the type of treatment demanded by various diseases—dietetic, pharmaceutical, and surgical—the treatise contains important accounts of heart disease, insanity, and the use of ligatures to stop arterial bleeding. Celsus also offered excellent descriptions of hydrotherapy and lateral lithotomy (for the removal of bladder stones). The historical portion of the work is of great importance; much of what is now known about Hellenistic medicine and Alexandrian anatomy and surgery comes primarily or exclusively from De medicina (289).

 

c. 41

Claudius Tiberius Germanicus Britannicus (Roman), Prince of Rome, exhibited the second known recorded allergic reaction in history, and the first of the Christian era. Britannicus could not ride a horse without presenting all the signs of an anaphylactic reaction (1098; 1309). Note: Based on various literature sources—mainly Suetonius, Plinius the Younger—typical symptoms of atopic diseases are described in some members of the Julio-Claudian family. Emperor Augustus could have suffered from bronchial asthma, seasonal rhinitis and atopic eczema, while Emperor Claudius showed signs of perennial rhinoconjunctivitis and Britannicus of horse dander allergy (1098; 1309). Note: Based on present-day standards, this can be regarded as a typical positive family history of atopy.

 

c. 50

Giovanni Battista Gasbarrini (IT), Luca Miele (IT), Gino R. Corazza (IT), and Antonio Gasbarrini (IT) reported the “case of Cosa”, which revealed a skeleton of a first century A.D. young woman at the archaeological site of Cosa, southwest of Tuscany, Italy. She was an 18-20 year-old woman, with signs of failure to thrive and malnutrition. The skeleton showed typical celiac disease damage and the presence of HLA-DQ2.5 (570). See, Samuel Joes Gee, 1888

 

54

Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus; Claudius (Roman), Emperor of Rome, was very likely given poisonous mushrooms by his fourth wife, Agrippina, to promote her son Nero (whom Claudius had adopted) to the throne (899; 1371).

 

c. 64

Pedanois Dioskorides; Pedanius Dioscorides; Discorides (Greek-Roman) of Anatolia attempted to accumulate all medical knowledge in his Materia Medica. This work includes the preparation, storage, genuineness, use, doses and effects of simple drugs and excellent descriptions of some 600 plants. He tells how to prepare mercury from cinnebar, potash from tartar, lead soap (plaster) and zinc soap (plaster) by boiling fat with lead oxide and zinc oxide and gives many tests for chemical substances. The medicinal uses of willow (salicylates), acacia, aloes, vinegar, alum, ammonia, starch, nutgalls, apocyanum, silver, cannabis, cantharides, cardamon, cassia, cerussa (lead), hemlock, colchicum, colocynth, croton oil, gentian, hellebore, hyoscyamus, mercury, opium, mandragora, peppermint, salt, mustard, solanum, thyme, and tragacanth are discussed. The use of mandragora in wine is one of the recommended anesthetics. He described general, rectal, and local anesthesia and gives us the first record of how opium was derived from poppy heads of Papaver somniferum (450). Materia Medica is the first systematic pharmacopeia.

“During more than sixteen centuries he was looked upon as the sole authority, so that everything botanical began with him. Everyone who undertook the study of botany, or the identification of medicines swore by his words. Even as late as the beginning of the seventeenth century both the academic and the private study of botany may almost be said to have begun and ended with the text of Dioscorides” (1285). The plant genus Dioscorea was dedicated to him in 1703 (1100). The family, Dioscoreaceae, also commemorates him.

 

65

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Roman) wrote, “Letters, however minute and obscure, are seen larger and clearer through a glass bulb filled with water.” He also noted the tendency for gout to run in families (1231).

 

c. 77-79

"Hail to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to show thy favor unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, thus made known thy praise." Gaius Plinius Secundus; Pliny the Elder (Roman) (1095).

 

Gaius Plinius Secundus; Pliny the Elder (Roman) wrote his great natural history book in which he discussed the following: 1) the world, the elements, and the heavenly bodies, 2) geography, in which is contained an account of the situation of the different countries, the inhabitants, the seas, towns, harbors, mountains, rivers, and dimensions, and the various tribes, some of which still exist and others have disappeared, 3) man, and the inventions of man, 4) various kinds of land animals, 5) aquatic animals, 6) various kinds of birds, 7) insects, 8) odoriferous plants, 9) exotic trees, 10) vines, fruit trees, 11) forest trees, 12) plants raised in nurseries or gardens, 13) nature of fruits and the cerealia, and the pursuits of the husbandman, 14) flax, broom, and gardening, 15) cultivated plants that are proper for food and for medicine, 16) flowers and plants that are used for making garlands, 17) garlands, and medicines made from plants, 18) medicines made from wine and from cultivated trees, 19) medicines made from forest trees, 20) medicines made from wild plants, 21) new diseases, and medicines made, for certain diseases, from plants, 22) plants and medicines, 23) medicines procured from man and from large animals, 24) medical authors, and on medicines from other animals, 25) magic, and medicines for certain parts of the body, 26) medicines from aquatic animals, and 27) other properties of aquatic animals (1093-1096).

Gaius Plinius Secundus; Pliny the Elder (Roman) referred to album ovi as albumen; which may well be the first written reference to a specific protein. He described how people on the island of Chios prepared starch from cereal flour and used it as an adhesive. He noted that growing beans fertilized the ground in which they were grown as well as did application of animal manure. He described the use by Romans of both spherical and lens-shaped glasses as burning glasses and wrote "Emeralds are usually concave so that they may concentrate the visual rays. The Emperor Nero used to watch in an Emerald the gladiatorial combats.” This quote appears to be the first description of using a monocle for correcting shortsighted vision. Pliny recognized the entity of goiters in the mountains, believed that goiter was due to dirty water and also used burnt seaweed in treatment. The plant genus Plinia was dedicated to him in 1703 (1100).

Antoine Francois Fourcroy (FR) was the first to find albumen in plants (409).

Michel-Eugène Chevreul (FR) determined that albumen is common to both plants and animals (302).

 

Pliny also mentions that the Romans held a spring festival, the Robigalia, to ward off the rubigo or rust, “the greatest pest of the crops.” He advocated the use of arsenic as an insecticide.

Pliny describes what were undoubtedly the first recorded autopsies—"proofe whereof was found and seen in Egypt by occasion that the KK there, caused dead bodies to be cut up, and anatomies to be made, for to search out maladies whereof men died” (1093-1096).

 

c. 79

Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secondus; Pliny the Younger (Roman), writing to Tacitus, says, "Leaning on two servants, he brought himself upright and immediately collapsed again, I suppose because his breathing was affected by the dense fog that obstructed his airways that were of a weak nature, narrow and subject to inflammation." (1097; 1098).

It is therefore to Pliny the Younger that we owe the first description of a fatal respiratory disorder induced by natural air pollution. The patient was Pliny the Elder, head of the Roman fleet, who had moved to Pompeii in the Bay of Naples (Italy), to observe the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and to help inhabitants of Pompeii in the year 73 AD.

 

79

Plague followed the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius and was common in Libya, Egypt, and Syria (793).

 

85

Tshui Chin Thi (CN) distinguished between incurable solid tumors and mobile benign curable masses.

 

c. 100

Ruphos of Ephesus; Rufus of Ephesus (Greek-Roman) wrote, On the Names of the Various Parts of the Body, the first comprehensive treatise of human anatomy; On the Interrogation of the Patient, concerning the taking of patient history; Treatise on the Pulse, in which, among other things, he stated that pulse resulted from systole and not diastole and that the dura mater “has a movement in time with the pulse”; Treatise on Diseases of the Kidneys and of the Bladder, in which he described inflammation of the kidneys, suppuration of the kidneys, kidney stones, hematuria, diabetes, cystitis, stones in the bladder, tumors of the bladder, and chronic nephritis; and On Satyriasis and Gonorrhoea, in which he notes that semen is formed in the testicles and is carried to the penis by a vessel other than the spermatic artery or vein.

In a fragment from Aetios he recognized suppositories as a method for introducing drugs, such as wormwood, hyssop (from Hyssopus officinalis), pyrethrum, mercury, thyme, and cyclamen. In a fragment preserved by Oreibasios he recommended inducing fever to treat convulsions, epilepsy, asthma (orthopnoea), melancholia, certain skin diseases, tetanus, and the woman in labor with convulsion (256; 1176).

 

Ruphos of Ephesus; Rufus of Ephesus (Greek-Roman) first described the optic chiasm and oviduct of sheep (484).

Isaac Newton (GB) briefly described the pathway of nerve fibers through the optic chiasm in animals that have both eyes look the same way (men, dogs, sheep, oxen, etc.). He deduced that only the optic nerve fibers from the nasal side of the retina crossed at the chiasma and noted that in animals in which both eyes don’t look the same way (fishes, lizards, etc.) there is no optic chiasm (996).

Johann Gottfried Zinn (DE) anatomically confirmed Newton’s deduction about a partial crossing of nerve paths in the optic chiasm (1502).

William Hyde Wollaston (GB) rediscovered the route of the nerve fibers through the optic chiasm (1478).

Hermann Munk (DE) presented a detailed anatomy of the optic chiasm and its association with the occipital cortex in the dog (986).

 

Hindu doctors had perfected twenty kinds of knives for different surgical procedures (1434).

 

The earliest unequivocal epidemic of bubonic plague in the Mediterranean occurred in Libya, Egypt and Syria (793). Rufus of Ephesus, who lived in the time of Emperor Trajan, preserved in the Collection of Oribasius, speaks of the buboes called pestilential as being especially fatal, and as being chiefly in Libya, Egypt, and Syria (262).

 

Plutarch (Roman, 46?–120) stated that animals' behavior is motivated by reason and understanding. Life of the ant mirrors the virtues of friendship, sociability, endurance, courage, moderation, prudence, and justice.

 

c. 120

Soranus of Ephesus (Greek-Roman) wrote, On Acute and Chronic Diseases, On the Signs of Fractures, and Diseases of Women. He was clearly the foremost obstetrician and gynecologist of antiquity, his Diseases of Women (De Morbis Mulierum) standing as a monumental work. In this work he described the anatomy of the uterus, discussed menstruation, fertility, signs of pregnancy, prenatal treatment, care of the newborn, dysmenorrhoea, uterine hemorrhage, the obstetrical chair, the vaginal speculum, a syringe for injections into the womb, dystocia (labor difficulties), moving the child in the uterus to present a favorable position for birth, methods for extracting the fetus which threatens the mother’s life because it cannot pass through the birth canal, pros and cons of virginity, prevention of conception, breast milk, wet nurses, diet of the nurse, diseases of the infant, teething, amenorrhea, diseases of the uterus, diseases of the external genitalia, and neck swelling following pregnancy, and vaginal hysterectomy (1282-1284). Note: These great works by Soranus were the "gold standard" until the Renaissance.

 

c. 140

Claudius Ptolemaeus; Ptolemy (GR-Roman-EG) investigated the problem of magnification by means of curved surfaces (1112).

 

c. 150

Antyllus (Greek-Roman), the greatest surgeon of antiquity, left precise instructions for performing such operations as removal of cataracts, aneurysms, tracheotomy, excision of scars, operations on fistula, breast, abdomen, contractures, resection of bones and joints, phimosis (tightness of the foreskin) and hypospadia (congenital opening of the urethra on the underside of the penis or into the vagina), venesection (bloodletting), and arteriostomy. Antyllus applied ligatures to the arteries that entered and left the aneurysm and then cut into the aneurysm sac, evacuated the contents, and packed the cavity. Antyllus did not resect the aneurysm sac. He stated, “Those who tie the artery, as I advise, at each extremity, but amputate the intervening dilated part, perform a dangerous operation. The violent tension of the arterial pneuma often displaces the ligatures.” It would be 16 centuries before this operation would be improved upon (70; 902; 1019; 1479).

 

c. 160

"Diabetes is a dreadful affection, not very frequent among men, being a melting down of the flesh and limbs into urine…. The patients never stop making water, but the flow is incessant, as if from the opening of aqueducts. The nature of the disease, then, is chronic, and it takes a long period to form; but the patient is short-lived, if the constitution of the disease be completely established; for the melting is rapid, the death speedy." Aretaeus the Cappadocian (88).

 

"Arthritis is a general pain of all the joints; that of the feet we call Podagra; that of the hip joint, Schiatica; that of the hand, Chiragra…. Arthritis fixes itself…sometimes in the hip-joints; and for the most part in these cases the patient remains lame in it." Aretaeus the Cappadocian (88).

 

Aretaios; Aretaeus the Cappadocian (Roman) wrote, On the Causes and Symptoms of Acute Diseases, On the Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Diseases, On the Therapeutics of Acute Diseases, and On the Therapeutics of Chronic Diseases. Few physicians match his descriptions and diagnoses of diseases in antiquity. He described diphtheria (the Syrian ulcer), tetanus, biliary tract disease, ascites, priapism, pneumonia, pleurisy, asthma (orthopnoea), epilepsy, diabetes mellitus, and diabetes insipidus, sprue (thrush), heart-afflictions, elephantiasis, hypogonadism, and hydatid disease (20; 87; 88).

 

Special Chinese handbooks for travelers to the south prescribed suitably exotic regimens and medicines for the malignant diseases encountered south of the Yangtse River (946).

 

165-180

The Antonine Plague, or Plague of Galen, was probably smallpox (red plague) or measles, or both, and was brought back to the Roman Empire by troops returning from the Middle East. The Roman emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus both died from it, in 169 and 180 respectively. This pandemic ravaged the entire extent of the Roman Empire, from its eastern frontiers in Iraq to its western frontiers on the Rhine River and Gaul, modern France, and Western Germany. It ravaged the Roman Empire at recurrent intervals for more than 100 years likely playing a significant role in the decline and fall of this great superpower (793).

 

c. 175

“When the tumor extends its feet from all sides of its body into the veins, the sickness produces the picture of a crab.” Claudii Galeni (805).

 

Galen; Galenos; Claudii Galeni; Aelius Galenus; Claudius Galenus; Clarissimus Galen of Pergamon (modern Turkey) (GR-Roman) became court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. He emphasized the use of the pulse as a diagnostic aid and described how urine flows through the ureters to the bladder and associated the kidneys with urine formation. He deduced that the arteries and veins are connected. He advocated thinking of the human body as an integrated whole rather than a collection of parts. Later scientists applied this concept to all multicellular creatures. Galen believed that there was a correlation of the parts of the body of different organisms and thus he led the way to comparative anatomy/physiology. He described phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) accurately and stressed the importance of climate and full diet in its treatment. He distinguished pleurisy from pneumonia, described true (arterial dilation) and false (arterial rupture) aneurysms, gallstones, and encephalitis lethargica. He controlled hemorrhage with pressure torsion of the artery, cautery or ligation. He used silk and catgut for sutures.

Galen states that the liver is the source of the veins and the principal instrument of sanguification.

By experiments in which he cut the intercostal nerves, excised a rib, or performed a transverse section of the spinal cord above the origin of the phrenic nerve, he concluded that chiefly the diaphragm itself performed ordinary respiration, and that the intercostal muscles were called into play only on forced respiration. He demonstrated in the pig that cutting the laryngeal nerve rendered the pig unable to squeal. Since this nerve came from the brain it disproved Aristotle’s teaching that the brain was not associated with sensation. He elucidated laryngeal and tracheal anatomy. He was the first to localize voice production to the larynx and to define laryngeal innervations. additionally, he described the supralaryngeal contribution to respiration, i.e., warming, humidifying, and filtering. Galen studied the relationship between paralysis and severance of the spinal cord. He distinguished between motor and sensory nerves. He stated that, each muscle has only one active movement (that of contraction, since muscles are only extended in passive obedience to the active movement of the opposing muscle) not six, as was commonly believed.

Galen was possibly the first to use the word “psora,” which meant “desquamative ailment” to define a skin disorder that involved itchy scaliness of the eyelids, corners of the eyes, and scrotum.

He coined the term gonorrhea (the clap), wrote a detailed record of malaria (ague), and described what were very likely Ascaris, Enterobius, and Taenia.

Galen apparently had an excellent command of medicinal botany and recommended that other physicians do likewise. Linnaeus dedicated the botanical genus Galenia to him in 1737.

His proofs came by reason and experiment, yet Galen’s greatest shortcoming was that what he didn’t know he tried to guess (551; 556-558; 560-562; 804; 867).

 

c. 185

Dion Cassius (Roman) related that during the reign of the Roman Emperor Commodus, during a particular pestilence, many persons not only in the city but in the whole Roman Empire were killed by wicked wretches, who for a stipulated reward dipped small needles into the pestilent poison and thus communicated the disease to others (71).

 

c. 200

Fevers, including regularly recurring fevers that must have been malarial (ague), figure very prominently in ancient Chinese medical writings, a fact that supports the notion that such afflictions influenced the early centuries of Chinese expansion (297).

 

A well-preserved Cyprian corpse from this period, exhibiting evidence of chronic schistosomiasis, was recently discovered (626).

 

Galen; Galenos; Claudii Galeni; Aelius Galenus; Claudius Galenus; Clarissimus Galen of Pergamon (modern Turkey) (GR-Roman) counseled patients suffering from "mania" to bathe in, and even drink the water from, alkaline springs. Interestingly, lithium is abundant in some alkaline mineral-spring waters (805).

 

Chang Chung-Ching (CN) wrote Essay on Typhoid, an important medical classic (307; 308).

 

Various compilers in post-classical and medieval times added to the Physiologus (or, more popularly, the Bestiary), the major book on animals for hundreds of years. Animals were believed to exist in order to serve man, if not as food or slaves then as moral examples.

 

251-270

The Plague of Cyprian takes its name from Saint Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, who described symptoms that suggest measles or smallpox (red plague) rather than bubonic plague. This epidemic killed the Roman emperor Claudius II Gothicus in the year 270 and is credited with encouraging mass conversions to Christianity. It has also been suggested as the time when Christians first began wearing black as the color of mourning (695; 793).

 

Second Pliny the Younger (Roman) c. 250-350 compiled the Medicina Plinii in which he gathered together over one thousand of the medical remedies described by the genuine Pliny (primarily in books #20-27, on herbs, in his Historia) and arranged them in three books according to malady, from head to foot in the first two books, ending with skin conditions, diseases of the whole body, and poisons in the third book. This collection was a key medical text of early medieval “monastic medicine” before the rise of a more formal medical curriculum in the High Middle Ages (714).

 

c. 340

Shapur II; Shapur the Great (Persian) established a university at Jundi-Shapur in Persia (902).

 

Ko Hung (CN) recommended alcoholic extract of seaweed for treatment of goiter among people living in the mountains.

 

357

Themistius (Byzantine) suggested to Emperor Constantius that a scriptorium be created and funded to guarantee the survival of ancient literature. The Emperor issued an order to create the scriptorium in 372 (1467).

 

c. 375

Oreibasios; Oribasius of Pergamum (modern Turkey) is best known because his writings preserved the works of others who would otherwise have been lost, writers like Galen, Antyllus, Archiagenes, and Dioskorides. He wrote over 70 books (1019).

 

c. 400

The Talmud advocated longitudinal incision in tracheostomy (975).

 

The Imperial University at Constantinople was founded (1434).

 

To avoid persecution, many Nestorians (a Christian sect) fled the Western Empire to settle in Gondeshapur is Southwest Persia near Baghdad. Here there arose a large community of physicians interested in all types of medical information. To gain this information they became a major center for the translation of foreign medical texts into Syriac and Aramaic, then after 638 into Arabic. Gondeshapur was ecumenical and international, with many Jewish, pagan, and Christian citizens (1434).

 

One should realize that Medieval midwives in Europe —5th through 15th centuries— alone proceeded in amputation of totally prolapsed or everted uteri following delivery.

 

c. 500

Julio Caesar Tello (PE) was inspired by the discovery in 1910 of the Paracas Textile (c. 100 B.C.E.) at the site of Cabeza Larga on the Paracas Peninsula on the south coast of Peru. In his 1925 excavations Tello found coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) placed in an urn which accompanied the burial of a Peruvian priest, noble, or king (Nazca period). This is the earliest record of the use of coca leaves (1331).

 

Greek and Roman physicians wrote about genital warts. They were the first to note the sexual transmission of genital warts (257).

 

542

Procopius (GR) described the great pandemic which occurred during this year of the Emperor Justinian’s reign. It’s spread within the Mediterranean by ship; the pattern of infection and details of its incidence as described make it unmistakably the plaque (Yersinia pestis) (1110).

Edward Gibbon (GB), in chapter forty-three, recounts that in the year 543 ten thousand people died each day in Constantinople (580).

 

543

Aetios Amidenus; Aetius Amidenus; Aëtius of Amida (Byzantine) uses the term eczema to denote ‘hot and painful phlyctenae (nodular affections occurring as an allergic response of the conjunctival and corneal epithelium) which do not ulcerate’ (1455).

Robert Willan (GB) was the next to use the term eczema. It was defined as "an eruption of minute vesicles, non-contagious, crowed together; and which from the absorption of the fluid they contain form into thin flakes or crusts. Lesions had an affinity for the inner thighs, axillae, infromammary area, and anus, lacked surrounding inflammation, and smarted rather than itched." (1459)

 

c. 550

Aetios Amidenus; Aetius Amidenus; Aëtius of Amida (Byzantine), personal physician of the Emperor Justinian, wrote Medicinae Tetrabiblios in which he gave a good description of diphtheria, discussed many afflictions of the eye, accounts for elephantiasis, ileus, the varieties of headache, pneumonia, pleurisy, epilepsy. He describes tonsillectomy, urethrotomy, treatment of hemorrhoids, and ligation of the brachial artery above the sac for aneurysm. He recognized three intestinal worms—taenia, ascaris, and oxyuria. To treat tapeworms, he recommended pomegranate and wormgrass, for round worms, artemisia (santonin) and coriander. Oxyuria he treated with enemata (59).

Writing on pestilential lesions of the tonsils, he stated, "They occur most frequently in children, but also in adults. Usually in children the evils known as aphthae develop. These are white, like blotches; some are ashen in color or like eschars from the cautery. The patient suffers from a dryness of the gullet and frequent attacks of choking …. a spreading sore supervenes in the region afflicted. In some cases the uvula is eaten up and when the sores have prevailed a long time and deepened, a cicatrix forms over them and the patient’s speech becomes rather husky and, in drinking, liquid is diverted upward to the nostrils. I have known a girl to die even after forty days when already on the way to recovery" (24).

 

The Hindus described honey urine (madhumeha) as one of the symptoms of a disease (diabetes). They believed it resulted from over-indulgence in rice (Oryza sativa), flour, and sugar (890).

 

569

A smallpox (red plague) epidemic struck Arabia and forced the Ethiopian army to retreat, thus ending their rule there. This was known as the Elephant War epidemic, for the white elephant on which the Christian prince Abraha rode into Mecca before his defeat and is described in the Koran. It was one of the earliest recorded epidemics of smallpox (red plague) (793).

 

570

Marius, Bishop of Avenches (CH), was the first to use the term variola, meaning stained skin (239).

 

580

An epidemic of quinsy (esquinancie) is mentioned in the Chronicle of St. Denis. Esquinancie is an inflammation of the throat—probably diphtheria (1108).

 

581

Gregory of Tours describes a smallpox (red plague) epidemic at Tours (611).

 

585-587

Japan suffered an epidemic of what was most likely smallpox (red plague) (793).

 

590

Bubonic plague killed Pope Pelagius II, who was succeeded by the reformer Gregory the Great (793).

 

An epidemic of St. Anthony’s Fire (ergotism) occurred in France. Synonyms for ergotism include: St. Anthony's fire, holy fire, evil fire, devil's fire, and saints' fire.

 

c. 600

Vilhelm Moller-Christensen (DK) states that the disease that would later be called Hansen’s disease (leprosy) appears to have established itself in Europe and the Mediterranean coastlands (237).

 

600

Aaron of Alexandria (Persian) describes smallpox (red plague) in his Pandectae Medicinus (46; 933).

 

638-639

The plague was endemic in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt (793).

 

c. 640

The Arabs conquered Alexandria, in Egypt, and ordered the contents of its great library to be used as fuel to heat the public baths. The burning scrolls heated the bath waters of Alexandria for six months (1398).

 

Paulus Aegineta of Alexandria (Byzantine), also called Paul of Aegina, performed many modern operations, among others those within the abdominal cavity. He gives symptoms of a disease that was very likely lead poisoning (23).

He promoted and modified the Hippocratic method of traction for spinal dislocations and was reported to use the "hot iron." More importantly, he is the first to hypothesize the concept of decompressive surgery/laminectomy for the treatment of this disorder. Additionally, he is credited as the first advocate for surgical removal of fractured spinous processes to relieve pain. His wound management was quite sophisticated for prevention of infection. He used wine (helpful in antisepsis, although this concept was then unknown) (596; 791; 922).

 

Chen Chhuan (CN), in his book Ku Chin Lu Yen Fano, was the first Chinese physician to mention sweetness of the urine in sugar diabetes (949).

 

Descriptions of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis, known as oriental sore, are found on tablets in the library of King Ashurbanipal from the 7th century B.C.E. Some of these descriptions are most likely derived from earlier texts of 1500 to 2500 B.C.E. (910).

 

650

Sun Ssu-Mo (CN) advanced the Chinese treatment of goiters by adding dried powdered mollusk shells and chopped up thyroid gland to seaweed. ref

 

664

"Life is as if on a winter’s night you sit feasting with your ealdormen and thegns, a single sparrow should fly swiftly into the hall, and coming in at one door instantly fly out through another. In that time in which it is indoors it is indeed not touched by the fury of the winter, but yet, this smallest space of calmness being passed almost in a flash, from winter going into winter again, it is lost to your eyes. Somewhat like this appears the life of man; but of what follows or what went before, we are utterly ignorant." The Venerable Bede (149).

 

The Venerable Bede (GB) described an epidemic in Ireland that was most likely relapsing fever, caused by the bacterium Borrelia recurrentis (894). verify, does not fit with 672 as date of Bede's birth

 

680

Plague again struck Rome and Italy and is credited with the origin of the cult of St. Sebastian, a third century martyr who was regarded as a protector against disease because the epidemic abated after his bones were moved from Rome to the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Pavia (793).

 

 

686

The Venerable Bede (GB) survived a plague epidemic which killed most of the people in Monkwearmouth-Jarrow, England . ref

 

 

Li Hsuan (CN), in his book Hsiao Kho Lun, was perhaps the first to discuss at length the reason for sweetness of the urine in disease. He is quoted as saying that in Hsiao Kho illness (diabetes), three things must be renounced: wine, sex, and eating salty cereal products. If this regime is carried out, cure may be possible without drugs. One must also be on the lookout for the development of boils and carbuncles, because if such develop near joints, the prognosis is very bad (949).

 

700-900

Japan suffered repeated epidemics of smallpox (red plague). The one in 735-736 killed several members of the ruling Fujiwara family, and led to a religious fervor that facilitated the spread of Buddhism (793).

 

746

Constantinople (Turkey) was struck again by plague (793).

 

c. 750

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan; Geber (Arabian), a famous alchemist, produced sulfuric, nitric, and nitro-muriatic acids (734). Note: Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3. .... Antoine Lavoisier called aqua regia nitro-muriatic acid in 1789.

 

The Arabs in Cordoba, Spain established a university. It was for some time the most renowned in Europe (902).

 

751

Pope Zacharis (IT) in a letter to Saint Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz (Germany), instructs him to hold off serving Holy Communion to persons with jaundice until all the rest had been served and to bury horses infected with the same condition (929; 1494). Note: Likely to have been viral hepatitis

 

760-845

 Kufa; Ibn al-A‘rābī (Arab) wrote a book on flies (insects), Kitāb al-Dabāb. ref

 

c. 781

Al-Jahiz (Afro-Arab, 781–868/869), a scholar at Basra, wrote on the influence of environment on animals. ref

 

c. 830

Walafrid Strabo (DE) was Abbot of Reichenau and the oldest medical writer on German soil. He describes in a poem (Hortulus) the value of native medicinal plants, and also the method of teaching medicine in monasteries (961).

 

833

A great center of learning and scholarship called Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) was established at Baghdad. Many important Greek and Latin works were translated here, including seven books of anatomy by Galen (now lost in Greek), and works by Hippocrates and Dioscorides (1434).

 

856

Cesare Baronio; Caesar Baronius (IT) reported that Rome experienced an epidemic of suffocative angina (diphtheria) (131).

 

c. 860

Hunayn Ibn-Ishaq Al-Ibadi; Johannitius (Arabian) wrote, Ten Treatises on the Eye, the first systematic textbook of ophthalmology (32). Note: Hunayn was one of the most important translators of the great Greek works into Arabic.

 

Abu Zakariya Yuhanna ibn Masawaih; Ibn Masawaih; Masawaiyh; Mesue; Masuya; Mesue Major; Msuya; Mesue the Elder; Joannes Damascenus (Persian) gave us the first recorded suggestion for filling of a tooth cavity with gold. He also advised against treating constipated patients with a violent purge (1370).

 

869

Sabur ibn Sahel (Persian) published a pharmacopeia at Jundi-Shapur in Persia; it was one of the first such works (757). See, Dioskorides, c. 64.

 

c. 900

The Chinese were using Ma Huang (rich in ephedrine) with properties similar to epinephrine (adrenaline) (209). The drug is derived from plants of the genus Ephedra and is most commonly used to prevent mild or moderate attacks of bronchial asthma. Unlike epinephrine, ephedrine is slow to take effect and of mild potency and long duration. It is a bronchodilator and decongestant.

Nagajoshi Nagai (JP), in 1887, isolated ephedrine as the active ingredient of Ma Haung but found it to be to toxic (990).

Ko Kuei Chen (CN) and Carl Frederic Schmidt (US) rediscovered ephedrine and described it as an orally active, long-lasting sympathomimetic amine of a structure similar to epinephrine (adrenaline). It induces hypertension (300; 301).

Julius Axelrod (US) discovered that ephedrine is metabolized to yield metabolites that have pressor (increase blood pressure) activity (107).

 

c. 900-c.1025

Japan was struck again by smallpox (red plague) epidemics, and by measles (793).

 

Abú-bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya’ Al-razi; Rhazes; Rasis; Razi (Persian) is reported to be the first physician to carefully describe and differentiate between measles and smallpox (red plague) (1146). He discussed stones of the bladder and kidney; diseases in children; coryza (allergy); and was the first to use plaster of paris to form casts in support of broken bones. He studied and described metallic antimony (947; 948).

Rhazes (Persian) wrote Al-Hawi (The Comprehensive Book), a twenty-three-volume encyclopedia of Greek, pre-Islamic Arab, Indian, and Chinese medical knowledge. It covered diseases of the skin and joints and explored the effects of diet and the concept of hygiene (1434).

 

Ibn Firnas (Arabian) created glass lenses that he used for magnification and to improve vision (1259).

 

Hospitals as we understand them today were developed under Islam. The first, and most elaborate, was built in the eighth century under Caliph al-Rashid (the caliph of the One Thousand and One Nights) (1365). The medieval Muslim hospital, as it existed in Baghdad, Cairo or Damascus had separate wards for men and women, special wards were devoted to internal diseases, ophthalmic disorders, orthopedic ailments, the mentally ill, and there were isolation wards for contagious cases. Colleges for medical training were attached to these hospitals. The idea of the pharmacy, or apothecary, was born. In Baghdad pharmacists had to pass an exam before they could produce and prescribe drugs. The exam covered the correct composition of drugs, the proper dosage, and the therapeutic effects. The notion of public health also began with the Arabs— among other things, doctors would visit prisons, to see whether there were any contagious diseases among the convicts that might spread (1434).

 

The most prominent center of medical studies in the Middle Ages, calling itself Civitas Hippocratica, was founded at Salernum, Italy on the Tyrrhenian Sea (it may have been older because Salernitan physicians were being sought after by royalty as early as 924). By the year 1000 the school had become secular although maintaining its ties with the abbey at Monte Cassino. It is the oldest school having a curriculum prescribed by the state. In 1140 King Ruggiero (Roger II) ordered a state examination to test the proficiency of prospective physicians, and Frederick II in 1240 decreed that before studying medicine, the candidate should have studied logic for at least three years, that he must study medicine for five years, and that, after graduation, he must serve one year as an assistant to an older physician. The decree also set medical fees, required free treatment of the poor, regulated the purity and prices of drugs, and the business relationship between the doctors and the pharmacists.

An anonymous didactic poem, Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum (The School of Salerno), also called Flos Medicinae Salerni, is the best-known literary work associated with this school. The most popular English version being one translated by John Harington and published in 1607 (419). The Antidotarium, a textbook containing various prescriptions in common use, was one of the schools’ great contributions to the medical sciences. Salernitanus Nicolaus (IT) is credited as its author (1000). It was here that a female professor composed Trotula, the first book on obstetrics written in Western Europe by a Christian author on diseases of women.

The employment of anesthesia by inhalation, and the use of local anesthesia originated with this school. A mixture of opium, hyoscyamus (usually an alcoholic extract of leaves, seeds, and flowers of Hyoscyamus niger or henbane), mandragora, hemlock, blackberries, lettuce, and ivy on a sponge was used for inhalation while a cataplasm (poultice or emollient) of opium, hyoscyamus, and mandragora was used for local anesthesia. Constantine of Carthage (Constantinus Africanus), who was associated with this school, is one of the most important translators of medical works from the original Greek, and from Arabic into Latin (424; 902; 1232). See, Code of Hammurabi, 1800 B.C.E., surgeon’s fees.

 

Marvin J. Allison (US), Enrique Gerszten (US), A. Julio Martinez (US), David M. Klurfeld (US), and Alejandro Pezzia (PE) discovered that a young female pre-Columbian mummy of the Huari culture in Peru seems to represent one of the earliest cases of collagen disease, with many aspects compatible with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (51).

 

Marvin J. Allison (US), Alejandro Pezzia (PE), Ichiro Hasegawa (US), Enrique Gerszten (US), Ronald F. Giffler (US), Daniel Mendoza (US), Harry P. Dalton (US) and Vincent A. Sawicki (US) presented evidence that an individual from the Huari culture in pre-Columbian Peru exhibited an array of ailments at the time of his death (890-950 ad). Radiological diagnosis revealed aspiration pneumonia, which was possibly initiated during a systemic salmonellosis such as typhoid fever. His health was further jeopardized by the presence of two helminthic infestations, hookworm and trichinosis (52; 53; 1196).

 

968

The Arab ruler Abd-al-Rahman III founded the University of Cordova, in Spain. It contained a library of some 400,000 books. ref

 

979

A bismaristan (hospital) was built in Bagdad on the banks of the River Tigris. The most important Baghdad hospital was the ‘adudi', named for a local ruler, it was established in 982. The 'adudi' was reported to have 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons, and bonesetters (456).

 

c. 980

Ibn al-Haytham Alhazen; Abu Ali al-Hasan; Ibn Al-Hasan; Alhazen (IQ-EG) in his Opticae Thesaurus discussed not only optical principles, but described the anatomy of the eye, and how the lens of the eye focuses an image on the retina. He was the first to record that a piece of glass, flat on one side and curved on the other, would magnify small objects (48);Alhazen, 1989 #3532}.

 

Ali ibn Abbas; Haly Abbas (Persian) wrote, System of Medicine subtitled Royal Book. In this book, among other things, he describes surgery as a treatment for goiters, laryngotomy, catheterization, eczema, scabies, miliaria rubra, miliaria alba, favus, pediculosis, seborrhoeic dermatitis, alopecia areata, lupus vulgaris, leprosy, filariasis, smallpox (red plague), chickenpox, measles, and erysipelas. (902).

 

c. 1000

Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn 'Abbas al-Zahrawi; Abulcases; Albucasis; Bulcasis; Bulcasim; Bulcari; Alzahawi; Ezzahrawi; Zahravius; Alcarani; Alsarani; Aicaravi; Alcaravius; Alsahrawi (Andalusian) wrote Al-Tasrif (The Method), a medical encyclopedia spanning 30 chapters which included sections on surgery, medicine, orthopedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology, nutrition etc.

Perhaps the most importance treatise is the one on surgery. It included many pictures of surgical instruments, most invented by Al-Zahrawi himself, and explanations of their use. Al-Zahrawi was the first medical author to provide illustrations of instruments used in surgery. There are approximately 200 such drawings ranging from a tongue depressor and a tooth extractor to a catheter and an elaborate obstetric device.

In the surgical treatise he discussed cauterization, bloodletting, midwifery/obstetrics, and the treatment of wounds. He described the exposure and division of the temporal artery to relieve certain types of headaches, diversion of urine into the rectum, reduction mammoplasty for excessively large breasts and the extraction of cataracts. He wrote extensively about injuries to bones and joints, even mentioning fractures of the nasal bones and of the vertebrae. In fact, 'Kocher's method' for reducing a dislocated shoulder was described in At-Tasrif long before Kocher was born! Al-Zahrawi outlined the use of caustics in surgery, fully described tonsillectomy, tracheotomy and craniotomy- operations he had performed on a dead fetus (Apparently the first mentioned case of advanced extra uterine pregnancy was by Al-Zahrawi. He described a case of a pregnant woman who did not expel the fetus after it had died. A long time afterwards a swelling was formed in the umbilical region from which, when opened, a matter flowed out. The wound did not close after long treatment but after applying strong medication, pieces of bone came out which Al-Zahrawi recognized as fetal bones although he did not know the real essence of the process). He explained how to use a hook to extract a polyp from the nose, how to use a bulb syringe he had invented for giving enemas to children and how to use a metallic bladder syringe and speculum to extract bladder stones.

Al-Zahrawi was the first to describe the so-called "Walcher position" in obstetrics; the first to depict dental arches, tongue depressors and lead catheters and the first to describe clearly the hereditary circumstances surrounding hemophilia. He also described ligaturing of blood vessels long before Ambroise Pare (11; 12; 89). See, John Hay, 1813.

 

1004

Cesare Baronio; Caesar Baronius (IT) reported that Rome experienced an epidemic of pestilential faucium or suffocative angina (diphtheria). He also mentions a similar epidemic for the year 1039 at Rome (131).

 

Cedrenus (Byzantine) reports that fatal angina (cynanche) is in the Eastern Empire. An inflammation of the throat accompanied by fever (diphtheria). ref

 

c. 1010

Ali Ibn Isa Al-Kahhal; Ali Ibn Ali; Jesu Haly (Arabian) in his book on the diseases of the eye speaks of the use of general anesthesia and acknowledges mandragora (a genus of solanaceous plants, Mandragora officinalis, the true or oriental mandrake) and opium as drugs which produce sleep (33). Atropine is the active ingredient of mandragora.

 

c. 1020

Abu Ali el-Hosein ben Abdallah Ibn Sina; Avicenna (Persian) combined the biology of Aristotle, Greek medical lore, and what Islamic physicians had discovered in his Al-Qanun (The Canon) which remained the authority in the west until the sixteenth century. He discussed mineral, animal, and vegetable poisons, rabies (from Sanskrit rabhas, to do violence), venesection (opening a vein for bloodletting), cancer of the breast, hydrocele (collection of water in the tunica vaginalis of the testicle), tumors, skin diseases, labor (mentions the use of forceps), meningitis, chronic nephritis, facial paralysis, pyloric stenosis (obstruction of the pyloric orifice of the stomach), ulcer of the stomach, tic douloureux (a spasmodic facial neuralgia), icterus (jaundice with discoloration of the urine), dilatation and contraction of the iris, the six motor muscles of the eye, the functions of the lachrymal ducts, a treatment for diabetes with actual (although very mild) hypoglycemic properties, infection with the European hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale), and infection with Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis) which he called Medina worm. His recommended treatment included lupin, fenugreek and zedoary seeds. He employed silver medicinally, including the use of silvered pills and silver filings as a blood purifier. He was he first to describe the bluish discoloration of the skin characteristic of excessive use of silver. He also pioneered the study of psychology.

Five hundred years after it was written, The Canon was a required textbook at the University of Vienna (102-104).

Avicenna (Persian) described oriental sore, called Balkh, in the 10th century (910). This was Old World leishmaniasis.

The eminent medical historian, William Osler (CA) called Avicenna’s Canon, “the most famous medical book ever written” and “a medical bible for a longer period than any other work.” Osler also referred to Avicenna as, “one of the greatest names in the history of medicine” (1030).

 

1048-1049

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports a high mortality among men and cattle in England due to pestilence. ref

 

c. 1050

"The Ancients said that when a cancer is in a site where total eradication is possible, such as a cancer of the breasts or of the thigh, and in similar parts where complete removal is possible, and especially when in the early stage and small, then surgery was to be tried. But when it is of long standing and large you should leave it alone. For I myself have never been able to cure any such, nor have I seen anyone else succeed before me." Albucasis (11; 407).

 

Alsaharanious of Arabia, in the 11th century, taught his students the surgical removal of the prolapsed uterus, when it couldn’t be repositioned in place (163). Note: Vaginal hysterectomies were performed in ancient times. See, Soranus of Ephesus 120 AD

Jacopo Berengario da Capri; Jacobus Berengarius Carpensis; Giacomo Berengario da Capri; Jacopo Barigazzi (IT), in 1521 at Bologna, provided the earliest account of a vaginal hysterectomy performed in 1507 on a prolapsed gangrenous uterus. Later, Berengario would perform a vaginal hysterectomy by circumferentially ligating the prolapsed uterus with some very strong twine and tightening the ligature until the organ was severed (167).

He also studied the change of sex life of women after hysterectomy and described the heart valves. Ref

Andreas A. Cruce (ES), in 1560, performed the first total extirpation of the uterus for cancer, i.e. vaginal hysterectomy. The manuscript describing his method is to be found in the Berlin and Göttingen libraries. ref

Joannes Schenck (UK), at Gräfenberg in the Ukraine, during the 17th century, recorded 26 cases of vaginal hysterectomy; nearly all died soon after surgery. (1203).

Friedrich Benjamin Osiander (DE), in 1801, was the first to perform a supravaginal amputation of a carcinomatous cervix uteri. The carcinomatous cervix, as large as a child's head, and filling the vagina, was drawn through the vaginal outlet with a pair of Smellie's obstetric forceps. The survival rate from this operation by Osiander and others was extremely low. He popularized the use of the vaginal speculum as a diagnostic resource and as an aid in operations upon the lower segment of the uterus. As early as 1808 he resorted to the speculum and curved scissors in the removal of uterine polypoid growths (1028; 1206).

C.L.E. Schroeder (DE), in 1880, presented his method for hysterectomy: he transected the pouch of Douglas and pulled the uterus fundus back, he then transected the vesicouterine fold. The adnexa was ligatured with single suture or in more stages was through the vaginal way (1219).

Conrad Johann Martin Langenbeck; Conrad von Langenbeck (DE), in 1813, is credited with performing, without assistance, the first carefully planned successful vaginal hysterectomy in modern times; it was to remove a cancer. The patient lived an additional twenty-six years, at which time a post-mortem verified this heroic operation just as Langenbeck claimed (821; 1234). Note: The second complete extirpation of the uterus per vaginam was performed by Johann Nepomuk Sauter (DE), Jan. 28, 1822 (1193; 1194). The third complete vaginal extirpation of the uterus was made by Elias von Siebold, April 19, 1823 (1408; 1409).

Walter Burnham (US), on 26 June 1853, performed the first operation for removal of the uterus by abdominal section (hysterectomy) that resulted in recovery (261). Note: The diagnosis was incorrect.

Thomas Keith (GB) used antiseptic technique and cauterized the cervical stump rather than let it drain. This reduced mortality from 70% to 8% (771; 1323).

Edward H. Richardson (US) performed the first successful total abdominal hysterectomy (1147).

Harry Reich (US), John DeCaprio (US), and Fran McGlynn (US), performed the first successful laproscopic hysterectomy (1135).

 

1081-1083

The army of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV was defeated by disease during his attempt to conquer Rome, probably typhoid fever and dysentery (bloody flux), and perhaps also malaria (ague) (793).

 

1088

Shen Kuo; Shen Gua (CN) devised a geological hypothesis for land formation (geomorphology), based upon findings of inland marine fossils, knowledge of soil erosion, and the deposition of silt. He also proposed a hypothesis of gradual climate change, after observing ancient petrified bamboos that were preserved underground in a dry northern habitat that would not support bamboo growth in his time (809).

1098

The First Crusade was delayed and made more difficult by disease, in particular by an epidemic, probably of typhoid fever, that struck in Syria in 1098 after the siege of Antioch (793).

 

1103-1105

There was a pestilence and murrain (cattle plague) in England. ref

 

c. 1112

Ismail ibn Hasan Jurjani; Zayn al Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn al Husayn al Jorjani (Persian) observed in Zakhireyei Khwarazmshahi (The Treasure of Khwarazm Shah) the association of exopthalmos, with goiter (756).

 

1112

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle a destructive pestilence occurs in England. ref

 

c. 1128

Hugh of Saint-Victor (FR), according to Peter Watson, “proposed that secular learning—focused on the sheer reality of the natural world— was a necessary grounding for religious contemplation. ‘Learn everything,’ was his motto, ‘later you will see that nothing is superfluous.’ From this attitude grew the medieval practice of writing summae, encyclopedic treatises aimed at synthesizing all knowledge” (713; 1434). This way of thinking was a great stimulus to the development of the sciences.

Robert Grosseteste (GB), in 1220-1235, was the first to fully understand Aristotle's vision of the dual path of scientific reasoning: Generalizing from particular observations into a universal law (induction), and then back again from universal laws to prediction of particulars (deduction). Grosseteste called this "resolution and composition". So for example looking at the particulars of the moon, it is possible to arrive at universal laws about nature. And conversely once these universal laws are understood, it is possible to make predictions and observations about other objects besides the moon. Further, Grosseteste said that both paths should be verified through experimentation to verify the principles (364).

Saint Thomas Aquinas (IT), in 1265-1274, insisted that there is a natural, underlying order of things, which appears to deny God’s power of miraculous intervention. There is, he said, a ‘natural law,’ which reason can grasp; Aquinas simultaneously Christianized Aristotle, and Aristotleized Christianity. A secular way of thinking was introduced into the world, which would eventually change man’s understanding for all time. Philosophy was no longer a mere handmaiden of theology. Human intelligence and freedom received their reality from God himself. Man could only realize himself by being free to pursue knowledge wherever it led. He should not fear or condemn the search. God had designed everything, and secular knowledge could only reveal this design more closely — and therefore help man to know God more intimately (977; 1343; 1434).

 

1148

An severe epidemic broke out in the army of the Emperor Louis VII at Attalia on the coast of Anatolia (Turkey). It wiped out soldiers and pilgrims of the Second Crusade and facilitated their defeat by the Turks (793; 1107).

 

c. 1150

Abd al-Malik ibn Abi al-Ala Ibn Zuhr; Avenzoar (Arabian) wrote Altersir or Theisir, a treatise on clinical medicine. He proved that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite; discussed extraction of cataract; miosis (excessive contraction of the pupil); mydriasis (extreme dilation of the pupil); feeding through a cannula in the throat; tracheotomy; removal of renal calculi (kidney stones); mediastinal (space between the two pleural sacs) abscess; and serous pericarditis (serum-like fluid around the heart). Avenzoar is the first physician known to have made postmortem dissections (725).

 

Constantinus Africanus (Carthaginian-Norman) in the employ of Robert Guiscard, commander of the Norman armies at the time, was the first important translator of great works from Arabic into Latin (902). See, c. 900.

 

Hildegard von Bingen (DE) wrote Physica (Natural History) and Causae et Cures (Causes and Cures). She was an outstanding herbalist and observer of folk medicine. These are among the first books on a biological or medical topic written by a woman (1401). See, c. 900.

In Causae et Cures she describes the human embryo as follows: “After the man's semen has fallen into its place so that it must be molded into a human form, from the woman's menstrual blood a fine skin, like a small vessel, will grow around that form and hold and surround it so that it may not be moved or fall, because the coagulated blood collects there so that this form lies in its middle, like a person in the shelter of his house.” She also gives one of the first descriptions of menopause (1402).

Hildegard von Bingen (DE) made some very intelligent recommendations,” such as eating cooked rather than raw foods. Ref

 

1158

In the city of Bologna, Italy a charter was issued for a school of law and medicine (law had been taught there for over a century prior to 1158). Some consider this to be the first University in the modern sense of the word. The students elected their masters and the rector (902).

 

1167

The army of Frederick Barbarossa (DE) was nearly destroyed by an epidemic disease after his conquest of Rome in 1167. Whether this was typhus (camp fever), malaria (ague), or something else has not been decided (793).

 

c. 1170

Roger son of Frugardi; Roger son of Ruggiero; Rogerius Frugardi; Roger of Palermo; Rogerius Salernitanus (IT) wrote Cyrurgia Rogerii (Roger’s Surgery), the first medieval textbook on surgery, which in various forms dominated the teaching and practice of surgery in Europe for many years. It was re-edited as Roger’s Practica about 1250. The Practica described how to treat fractures of the skull, nasal polyps, hemorrhoids, fractures of the jaw, goiters, and stone in the bladder. It introduced the use of the seton (a strip or skein of silk or linen drawn through a wound in the skin to make an issue) and intestinal anastomoses (performed using a hollow cylinder of elderwood). Goiters, instead of being removed surgically were often treated with an electuary (powdered drug made into a paste) containing among other things ashes of seaweed and sea sponge. One of the most famous variations of the Practica was Roland’s Libellus de Cyrurgia, produced by Roger’s pupil Roland of Parma (401; 902).

 

1170

Gerard of Cremona (IT) was sent by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (DE) to Toledo, Spain to translate Avicenna’s Canon from Arabic into Latin. He not only translated the Canon but some 70-additional works including Rhazes’s Al Kitabul-l-Mansuri, the surgery of Albucasis, and Arabic versions of Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen (902).

 

1173

Influenza (grippe) occurs as an epidemic in England, Germany, and Italy (367).

 

1189

Many Crusaders fall victims to typhoid and scurvy at Acre, Israel during the Second Crusade (793).

 

c. 1190

Andreas Capellanus; André le Chapelain (FR) wrote that for contraception women drank decoctions of fennel and acorn. Each alone prevented menstrual flow; together they were considered effective against ovulation and conception (270).

 

1196

A flesh fly, maybe Blaesoxipha lineata (Fallén) was noted as the main parasite of Locusta migratoria L. in China’s Jiangsu Province. ref

 

1199

Moses Maimonides; Moshe ben Maimon; Moses ben Maimon; Moïse Maïmonide; Musa ibn Maimun (ES-EG), the Jewish theorist and physician who practiced medicine in Egypt, states that illness curable by diet alone should not otherwise be treated. He makes many dietary recommendations related to various illnesses. Notably Maimonides recommends one ideal light meal for making an asthmatic chest feel better. Chicken soup—chicken or turtle dove with vinegar and lemon juice cooked with mint—ought to be followed by pomegranate juice. Amazingly, he recommends avoiding fatty, rich, coarse foods whose pathogenic fluids after digestion could concentrate in blood vessels, and, not being evacuated, cause their narrowing (900).

Maimonides gives us a rare glimpse into the daily affairs of a physician in the 12th century. In a letter to his friend Shmuel Ibn Tibbon he writes, "I dwell at Fostat, and the sultan resides at Cairo [about a mile­and­a­half away]....My duties as physician to the sultan are very heavy. I am obliged to visit him every day, early in the morning. When he or any of his children or any women of his harem are indisposed, I dare not leave Cairo but must spend the greater part of the day in the palace. Often some of the royal officers fall sick and I must treat them. Hence, I go to Cairo early in the day and even if nothing unusual happens, I do not return home until late afternoon. Then I am fatigued and hungry. I find the antechambers filled with people, Jews and gentiles, nobles and commoners, judges and bailiffs, friends and foes that await the time of my return. I dismount from my animal, wash my hands and entreat my patients to bear with me while I partake of some food, my only meal in 24 hours. Then I go forth to attend my patients, write prescriptions and directions for their ailments. Patients go in and out until nightfall, and sometimes, even, until two hours and more in the night. I converse with them and prescribe for them while lying down from sheer fatigue. And when night falls, I am so exhausted I can scarcely speak" (543).

 

c. 1200

Aegidius Corboliensis; Gilles de Corbeil (FR) wrote the poem Carmina de Urinarum, which remained the standard text on urine for 500 years (408).

 

The first description of fascioliasis (liver-fluke infestation) in literature is in the circa 1200 Black Book of Chirk or The Chirk Codex (546).

Jean de Brie (FR), in 1379, made mention of 'liver rot' disease in sheep while preparing a treatise on wool production (397; 398).

John Fitzherbert (GB), Anthony Fitzherbert (GB), and Thomas Berthelet (GB) described what was very likely a liver fluke (524).

Fanensi Gabucinus; Hieronymus Gabucinus (IT) described worms resembling pumpkin seeds in the blood vessels of sheep and goats (553).

Godefridus Govart Bidloo (NL) observed worms in the bile ducts of sheep, stags, and calves; noting that he remembered seeing similar worms in the livers of humans (180; 181).

Karl Georg Friedrich Rudolf Leuckart (DE) and Algernon Phillips Withiel Thomas (GB) described the complete life cycle of the sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, including the role of snails in their development (854; 1344-1348).

Dimitry F. Ssinitzin; Dimitry F. Sisnitzin (PL-RU) showed that cercariae of F. hepatica pass through the gut wall of the rabbit and traverse the peritoneal cavity to arrive in the liver (1288).

James Frederick Parry McConnell (GB-IN) was the first to describe the Chinese liver fluke, (Clonorchis sinensis ) of man (941).

Isao Ijima (JP) described the larval stage (the miracidium) present in Clonorchis sinensis. ref

Harujiro Kobayashi (JP) discovered that an important food fish is the second intermediate host of Clonorchis sinensis. This is the source by which human infections are acquired. There are 12 species of fish that are mainly responsible for passing the infection to humans. Some of these fishes include Pseudorasbora parva (in the Japan region) and Ctenopharyngodon idella (in the Canton region) (792).

Masatomo Muto; also known as Shochi Muto (JP) recognized the snail host of Clonorchis sinensis, mainly Parafossarulus manchouricus and species from the genus Bulinus (989).

 

1201

England experiences a serious human plague and murrain (cattle plague). ref

 

1215

During the Fourth Lateran Council, a papal edict was issued which forbade physicians (most of whom where clergy) from performing surgical procedures, as contact with blood or body fluids was viewed as contaminating to men of the church. ref

 

1220

Theodoric Borgognoni; Ugone da Lucca; Hugo de Lucca (IT) introduced the use of spongia somnifera [sleep sponges] for anesthetization of patients for minor surgery. A sponge soaked in a dissolved solution of opium, mandrake, hemlock, mulberry juice, ivy and other substances was held beneath the patients nose to induce unconsciousness. He insisted that the practice of encouraging the development of pus in wounds, handed down from Galen and from Arabic medicine be replaced by a more antiseptic approach, with the wound being cleaned and then sutured to promote healing. Bandages were to be pre-soaked in wine as a form of disinfectant (1334). Note: Borgognoni was significant in stressing the importance of personal experience and observation as opposed to a blind reliance upon the ancient sources.

Francis Bacon (GB) reported that simple opiates, which are likewise called narcotics and stupefactives, are opium itself, which is the juice of the poppy, the plant and seed of the poppy, henbane, mandragora, hemlock, tobacco, and nightshade (108).

 

1202

Leonardo of Pisa; Fibonacci (IT) considered the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that, 1) a single newly born pair of rabbits (one male, one female) are put in a field, 2) rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits; 3) rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was: how many pairs will there be in one year? (1009) Note: Fibonacci numbers appear in various "family trees" and patterns of spirals of leaves, seeds, and sea shells.

 

1218-1219

Scurvy kills many Crusaders at Damietta, Egypt (793).

 

1224

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (Sicilian-DE) was the first to deliberately establish a university by royal edict. It was located at Naples. Pope Gregory IX authorized the first papal university in 1229 at Toulouse. ref

 

1231

Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor (Sicilian-DE) decreed ‘that no surgeon be admitted to practice unless he be learned in the anatomy of the human body.’ A law was put in place that provided for the public dissection of the human body ‘at least once in five years,’ at Salerno (1434).

 

c. 1240

Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor (Sicilian-DE) wrote De Arte Venandi cum Avibus [The Art of Hunting with Birds], a treatise on hunting, which is also a serious, scientific account of the habits and structure of birds. He found the air cavities in bones, described the lung, and made observations on flight and migration (541; 542). This work was first printed in 1596.

 

Gilbertus Anglicus; Gilbertinus (GB) wrote Compendium Medicinae, a seven volume work in which he attempted to consolidate medical knowledge up to that time. He mentions squinantia, which sometimes caused death by suffocation; likely diphtheria.

John of Arderne (GB) had similar cases which he called squynancy (67; 1160).

 

1241

Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor (Sicilian-DE) issued the Edict of Salerno (sometimes called Constitution of Salerno) which mandated the first legally fixed separation of the occupations of physician and apothecary. Physicians were forbidden to double as pharmacists and the prices of various medicinal remedies were fixed. This became a model for regulation of the practice of pharmacy throughout Europe. ref

 

c. 1246

Ibn Nafis; Ibn al-Nafis; Ibn an-Nafis; Ala’ al-Din Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Quarashie (Arabian) suggested that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separated by a nonporous ventricular septum and described the lesser circulation (pulmonary circulation) of blood more than two centuries before Miguel Servet y Reves (Michael Servetus) or Matteo Realdo Colombo (34; 183). See, 1553

 

c. 1249

Roger Bacon (GB) described how curved glass could be used as spectacles to treat farsightedness (113). In his book Perspectiva of 1267 he says, "Great things can be performed by refracted vision. If the letters of a book, or any minute object, be viewed through a lesser segment of a sphere of glass or crystal, whose plane is laid upon them, they will appear far better and larger” (865).

 

Albertus Magnus; Alberti Magni; Albert of Cologne; Albert the Great (DE) in De Animalibus distinguished four types of animal reproduction; opened fowl eggs at various intervals of time to trace the development of the embryo from the pulsating red speck of the heart to hatching; described insect mating; identified insect eggs; showed that ants needed their antennae for orientation; and observed the ovarian follicles and trachea of crickets (37).

In De Vegetabilibus Plantis he presented an accurate, detailed and systematic classification of plants from the fungi to the flowering forms. He grouped flowers into three types: bird-form, bell-form, and star-form. He was the first to mention spinach in Western literature, the first to note the influence of light and heat on the growth of trees, and the first to establish that sap (which he knew was carried in vessels) is tasteless in the root and becomes flavored as it ascends. Albertus proposed that existing plant forms are sometimes mutable (38).

 

1250

Welch physicians were using menygellydon, or “elves’ gloves” or “little folks’ gloves” as an herbal remedy. This is foxglove, which contains digitalis (683; 844).

 

Many Crusaders led by Louis IX of France die from scurvy and typhoid at Al Mansurah, Egypt during the 2nd Crusade (793).

 

1251

Jordanus Ruffus (DE) was first to recognize and describe equine strangles (coryza contagiosa equorum ) (1164; 1175). It is also called druse or gourme.

Jacques de Solleysel (FR) described strangles and noted that it is a disease of horses that has been known for many years (426).

Philippe-Étinne La Fosse (FR) determined experimentally that strangles (distemper) is infectious (812).

Sebastiano Rivolta (IT) found that micrococci are common in the pus of strangles cases (1151).

Leopoldo Baruchello (IT), in 1886, described the cause of equine strangles (a highly contagious respiratory tract disease of horses and donkeys) to be a micrococus, which he named Bacillus adenitis equi. Using experimental infection of colts he concluded that the disease was the result of a mixed infection of streptococci and staphylococci (136-139). Note: A vaccine is discussed in the 1908 article.

Johann Wilhelm Schütz (DE), Gerhard Sand (DK) and Carl Oluf Jensen (DK) were able to reproduce the disease in healthy horses using pure cultures of Streptococcus equi (1220).

 

1266

The English Parliament passed regulatory enactments, called assizes, prohibiting the adulteration of any staple food that was also subject to price controls. The 1266 statutes prohibited the sale of any corrupted wine or of any meat, fish, bread, or water that was not wholesome for man’s body or that was kept so long that it loseth natural wholesomeness (1077).

 

c. 1266

Theodoric Borgognoni; Teodorico de'Borgognoni; Theodoric of Lucca; Theodoric Borgognoni of Cervia (IT) in his book, Cyrurgia [Surgery], pioneered in the use of the aseptic technique—not the “clean” aseptic technique of today, but rather a method based on avoidance of “laudable pus”. He attempted to discover the ideal conditions for good wound healing, and concluded that they comprised control of bleeding, removal of contaminated or necrotic material, avoidance of dead space, and careful application of a wound dressing bathed in wine. Control of bleeding, removal of contaminated or necrotic material, and avoidance of dead space are principles that can also apply in today’s operations. He also argued for primary closure of all wounds when possible and avoiding “laudable pus.” He advocated the use of narcotic-soaked sponges to put surgical subjects to sleep (200). See, Celsus c. 30 B.C.E. and Galen, c. 175.

 

c. 1267

"Experimental science has three great prerogatives over other sciences; it verifies conclusions by direct experiment; it discovers truth which they never otherwise would reach; it investigates the course of nature and opens to us a knowledge of the past and of the future." Roger Bacon (112).

 

c. 1270

Arnaldus de Villanova; Arnald of Villanova (ES) an alchemist who taught at the medical school in Montpellier, France reported that when wood is burned under conditions of poor ventilation the fumes released are poisonous. This amounts to a discovery of carbon monoxide. He practiced alcohol distillation and systematically used alcohol to prepare tinctures for the treatment of certain diseases. He refers to the use of burnt sea sponge as a treatment of simple goiter (its iodine content may have been the reason for its success) (430). Note: As long ago as 1600 B.C.E., the Chinese made use of burnt sponge and seaweed as a therapy for goiters.

 

Giuseppe Flajani (IT), Antonio Giuseppe Testa (IT), Caleb Hillier Parry (GB), Robert James Graves (GB), and Karl Adolph von Basedow (DE) described a disorder characterized by a triad of hyperthyroidism, goiter, and exophthalmos (bulging eyeballs). The symptoms include cardiac arrhythmias, increased pulse rate, weight loss in the presence of increased appetite, intolerance to heat, elevated basal metabolism rate, profuse sweating, apprehension, weakness, elevated protein-bound iodine level, tremor, diarrhea (flux), vomiting, eyelid retraction, and stare. Goiters are more prevalent in fresh water and lake countries and less so on the seacoast, due to the lack of iodine in fresh water. It is variously called Flajani’s disease, Parry’s disease, Graves’ disease, Basedow’s disease, or Graves-Basedow disease (527; 607; 1059; 1060; 1333; 1400). Note: now called exophthalmic goiter. Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Albrecht von Graefe (DE), in 1867, described lid lag in thyrotoxicosis (Basedow’s disease) (1403).

 

Jean-Francois Coindet (CH), who previously used burnt sponge and seaweed to successfully treat goiter (goitre), prescribed iodine as a cure for goiter (332). Note: Proper dosage was difficult, and some patients were injured.

Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné Boussingault (FR) advised the government of Columbia, South America that for the treatment of goiter they make available to the world naturally iodized salt, which they possessed. He knew the value of this salt because a young physician —Francois Désiré Roulin (FR) — collected a sample of the Columbian salt and sent it to him for analysis (100; 206; 207; 1058; 1302).

Karl Adolph von Basedow (DE) gave this description of exophthalmic goiter (hyperthyroidism). “Mrs. G. [the first of three cases described] lost weight, suffered from edema of the legs, general emaciation, amenorrhoea, palpitation of the heart…shortness of breath, and a sense of depression about the chest. There was a noticeable protrusion of the eyeballs, which were otherwise healthy and functioned completely, although she slept with open eyes. She had a frightened look and was known in our whole town as a crazy woman” (1400). Basedow’s disease = hyperthyroidism.

Paul Julius Mobius (DE), in 1887, suggested a hyperfunction of the thyroid gland in exophthalmic goiter (966).

Julius Wagner-Jauregg (AT) had become convinced that the regular intake of small amounts of iodine was prophylactic against cretinism, and proposed that iodized salt be added obligatory to salt sold in areas in which goiter was endemic (741).

Eugen Baumann (DE) discovered that the thyroid gland is rich in an organic form of iodine (he called it iodothyrin). Before this, iodine was not known to occur naturally in animal tissue. The thyroid is unique for being so much richer in iodine than other tissues. Baumann also reported that persons inhabiting coastal areas contain more thyroid iodine than persons living further inland (145; 146). See, Edward Calvin Kendall, 1914.

Robert Grieve Hutchison (GB) isolated the globulin that was later named thyroglobulin (720).

adolf Oswald (DE) clearly demonstrated that the iodine of the thyroid is firmly bound to a globulin-like protein and introduced the term thyroglobulin (1032-1034).

David Marine (US), William Whitridge Williams (US), and Carl H. Lenhart (US) studied the histology of the thyroid gland in relation to its iodine content. They found that a fall in iodine content preceded any cellular changes with a falling iodine content eventually leading to hyperplasia and hyperactivity but not hyperfunction (919; 920).

Heinrich Hunziker-Schild (CH) was one of the first to realize the connection between iodine-poor diets and goiter (716).

Edward Calvin Kendall (US) isolated, crystallized, and named the hormone thyroxine from thyroid gland tissue (772-775). Thyroxine was first called thyroxin (at the suggestion of Kendall’s assistant, Arnold E. Osterberg). The ‘e’ was added when it was realized that it is an amino acid with an amine group.

David Marine (US) and Oliver P. Kimball (US) demonstrated that the addition of iodide to a water supply in areas where simple goiter was common would prevent and cure the disease. Their work led to the common use of iodized salt (918).

David C. Rayner (GB) and Brian R. Champion (GB) reported that exophthalmic goiter, or Graves’ disease, is not the result of dietary iodine levels. It is primarily an autoimmune disorder, resulting in abnormal metabolism (1127).

Ismail Ibn Hasan Jurjani (Persian) described this condition over 800 years earlier (756).

 

1271

Marco Polo (Venician) both father and son wrote of the people of the Karkan in Turkestan that had tumors of the throat caused by the poor quality of the water that they drank. ref Note: Very probably goiter.

 

1275

William of Saliceto; Guglielmo da Saliceto; Guilelmus de Saliceto (IT) wrote Cyrurgia, a highly respected book on surgery (373). He recorded his thoughts on urine formation and described renal dropsy (edema) in his book, In Scientia Medicinali (901). His descriptions of the human anatomy strongly suggest that he practiced dissection even though many in the church were opposed.

William of Saliceto; Guglielmo da Saliceto; Guilelmus de Saliceto (IT) was perhaps the first to suggest that voluntary movements originate in the “brain”, whereas “natural and necessary” movements originate in the cerebellum (579). See, Herophilus of Alexandria; Herophilos of Chalcedon; Herofilos of Chalkedon, 300 B.C.E.

 

Raymundus Lullius; Raimondus Lullius (ES) allegedly discovered diethyl ether which was named oleum dulcivitrioli (sweet vitriol oil). I: Its description is not found in any of his extant works.

Valerius Cordus (DE), in 1540, was one of the first to prepare diethyl ether (sweet vitriol oil). He did this by heating alcohol with sulfuric acid (829).

Theophrastus Phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim; Paracelsus (CH), c. 1540, sweetened the feed of fowl with oleum dulcivitrioli (sweet oil of vitriol) (ether) and discovered that the inhalation of the vapor could induce sleep in chickens without causing any harm. However, its potential as an anesthetic in humans was not realized for another 200 years (1120).

Andreas Libavius; Andreas Libau (DE), in his Alchemia, describes Paracelsus’ method of preparing analeptic spirit of vitriol (ether) by adding alcohol to the distillate of vitriol (858). Note: This book is the first systematic chemistry textbook.

Johann Sigismund August Frobenius (DE) and Cromwell Mortimer (NL) changed the name oleum dulcivitrioli (sweet oil of vitriol) to spiritus vini aethereus (spirit of heaven) (545).

 

Marco Polo (IT) reported that some people wear lenses before their eyes in China and provided information on Asiatic fauna, revealing new animals to Europeans (1103).

 

c. 1280

Pietro d'Abano; Petrus De Apono; Petrus Aponensis; Peter of Abano (IT) proposed that the brain was the source of the nerves, and the heart was the source of the blood vessels (386).

 

1295

Lanfranc de Milan (IT) wrote on a system of surgery in which he was the first to describe concussion of the brain. He advocated shaving the head prior to skull surgery (420).

 

1296

England experienced an epidemic of flux (probably dysentery). ref

 

c. 1300

The first synthetic dye, orcein, called French purple, was produced by exposing orchella extract to air oxidation in the presence of ammonia formed during the fermentation of urine by a lichen. The lichen was identified as Rocella (315).

 

The first important responses to the plague (Yersinia pestis) took extreme and ugly forms. In Germany and some adjacent parts of Europe companies of flagellants aimed at carrying out God’s wrath beat each other bloody and attacked Jews, who were commonly accused of spreading the pestilence. The flagellants disdained all established authorities of church and state and, if accounts are to be believed, their rituals were well nigh suicidal for the participants (1500).

 

Guy de Chauliac; Guidon de Chauliae (FR) revived the use of compression of the nerve trunk as an anesthetic in the 1300s, and Ambroise Paré (FR) did the same in 1542. This technique had been known in antiquity (1360).

Valverdi (IT), in 1600, produced regional anesthesia by compression of nerves and blood vessels supplying the operative area (358). full name

 

The halving of China’s population between 1200 and 1393 is better explained by plague (Yersinia pestis) than by Mongol barbarity (399).

 

1302

The first known court ordered post-mortem was performed on Azzolino, a nobleman of Bologna, Italy, suspected of having been poisoned (902).

 

1305

Bernard de Gordon (FR) wrote Lilium Medicinae (Lily of Medicine) in which he described the treatment of hernia with a truss and made the first mention in medical literature of spectacles for the eyes. Simple lenses had been in use for many years (410).

 

1310

Jehan Yperman (Flemish) gave the first exact description of unilateral and bilateral cleft lip surgery (1413; 1493).

 

1315-1316

John de Trokelowe (GB) reported an epidemic throat infection called pestis gutturosa in England (1361).

 

1316

Mondino; Remondino de Luzzi (IT), who taught at the medical school in Bologna, wrote Anothomia, the first modern textbook devoted entirely to human anatomy. He is credited with coining the word mesentery and making the first public anatomical demonstration upon the human body, yet this distinction may belong to Herophilus of Alexandria (GR), 300 B.C.E. (435).

 

1323

Influenza is epidemic in Italy and France (367). The French referred to influenza as "the grippe."

 

c. 1325

Hu-Ssu-Hui (Hoshoi), a Mongolian physician, observed that there were some diseases, such as, for example, the last stages of avitaminosis-B, which could be cured by diet alone, without the intervention of any drugs at all (718).

 

c. 1330

William of Ockham; William of Occam (GB) laid down the rule that: "Non sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem [Entities must not needlessly be multiplied.]" This has been interpreted in modern times to mean that of two theories equally fitting all observed facts, that theory requiring the fewer assumptions is to be accepted as more nearly valid. The rule, now called Ockham’s razor, is of vital importance in the philosophy of science (1008). Ockham and Duns Scotus (GB) were very important to the rebirth of scientific inquiry because they were "insistent upon the separation of theology from practical truth—a separation which manifestly released scientific inquiry from dogmatic control" (1443).

 

1337

A severe epidemic of sorethroat occurred in Holland. Likely diphtheria. ref

 

c. 1340

Petrus de Crescentii; Pietro de Crescenzi (IT) wrote Ruralum Commodorum, a practical manual for agriculture with many accurate observations on insects and other animals. Apiculture was discussed at length.

 

Before the plague (Yersinia pestis) called the Black Death reached the Crimea in 1346 and began its devastating career in Mediterranean lands, Uzbek villages of the western steppe had been completely emptied by the disease (455). It is believed to have originated in Eastern Asia, passed through India to Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Northern Africa, and directly to Europe by the Black Sea. In Europe the epidemic began in 1346, and spread first of all in the maritime cities of Italy and Sicily, in 1347 it appeared in Constantinople, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Sardinia and Corsica, and towards the end of the year, at Marseilles; in 1348 in Spain, Southern France, Paris, the Netherlands, Italy, Southern England and London, Schleswig-Holstein and Norway, and in December, in Dalmatia and Jutland; in 1349 in the Austrian Alpine countries, Vienna, and Poland; in 1350 in Russia, where in 1353 the last traces disappeared on the shores of the Black Sea. The social upheaval that ensued is generally regarded as the end of the Middle Ages (1232).

 

c. 1350

 

John of Arderne (GB) wrote, the Practica (De Arte Phisicali et de Cirurgia), in which he formed the basis of practical surgical teaching in the medical schools of medieval Europe (751).

John of Arderne (GB) was an accomplished surgeon who was so expensive that he served mostly the nobility, wealthy landowners, and the higher clergy. He taught that wounds should heal without suppuration; that irritating solutions should not be used on wounds; and that dressings should be changed as infrequently as possible. His operation for fistula in ano, dividing the fistula from end to end was visionary (85).

 

1358

Giovanni Boccaccio (IT), in the Preface to Ladies in his Decameron discusses the plague (Yersinia pestis) of 1348. He says, "At the onset of the disease both men and women were afflicted by a sort of swelling in the groin or under the armpits which sometimes attained the size of a common apple or egg. Some of these swellings were larger and some smaller, and all were commonly called boils…. Afterwards, the manifestation of the disease changed into black or livid spots on the arms, thighs and the whole person…. Like the boils, which had been and continued to be a certain indication of coming death, these blotches had the same meaning for everyone on whom they appeared." The following is an excerpt from The First Day of the Decameron, "And this pestilence was a farre greater power or violence; for not only healthful persons speaking to the sick, coming to see them, or ayring clothes in kindness to comfort them was an occasion of ensuing death; but touching their garments, or any foode whereon the sick person feed, or anything else used in the service, seemed to transfer the disease from the sicke to the sound, in very rare and miraculous manner" (193; 194).

 

1361

Plague is epidemic in England. ref

1363

Guy de Chauliac; Guidon de Chauliae (FR), greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages and physician to the popes at Avignon, wrote the Chyrurgia Magna in which he expressed his belief in laudable pus and the conventional theory of coction and expulsion of irritant humors through suppuration in the healing of wounds. He described the abscesses associated with phlegmon, pustules, gangrene and anthrax as hot. These represent some of today’s acute inflammatory abscesses.

Guy lived through two visitations of the plague (Yersinia pestis) while he was physician to the popes in Avignon, caught the disease himself and left a good description of it. He also wrote an excellent account of leprosy, at the time endemic through all of Europe (873). Note: Laudable means good or healthy. Coction refers to the notion that heat caused bad humors to cook up and be expelled by suppuration, i.e., the formation of pus. Phlegmon is inflammation of the connective tissues. Guy introduced the treatment of broken limbs by suspension in a cradle—the method of making traction to prevent deformity by shortening of the member—a method still in use. He was one of the first physicians to advocate the use of glasses in certain eye disorders and the first to mention compression therapy for varicose veins. His Cyrurgia Magna, completed in 1363, was the surgical authority until the eighteenth century (400-406; 1426).

 

1371-1901

Ida MacAlpine (DE-GB), Richard Alfred Hunter (DE-GB), John C.G. Röhl (GB), Martin Warren (GB), and David Hunt (GB) presented strong circumstantial evidence that porphyria, possibly variegate porphyria, was present in the Royal Houses of Stuart and Hanover in the United Kingdom (893; 1156).

 

1374

Venice excludes plague-ridden ships from its harbor. ref

 

The "Dancing mania" occured when victims of dancing epidemics were experiencing altered states of consciousness in areas within Germany, France, and the Netherlands. Those who danced did so involuntarily as indicated by their extraordinary levels of endurance. In a trance state, they would have been far less conscious of their physical exhaustion and the pain of sore, swollen, and lacerated feet. The course of the epidemics also suggests that they were driven by pious fear. From the outbreaks of 1374, 1463, and 1518 we know that dancing was thought to be both the affliction and its cure. The central role of belief is apparent in the speed with which epidemics abated once victims had prayed at appropriate shrines or undergone elaborate exorcism rituals. The phenomenon of the "dancing mania", in all its rich perversity, reveals the extremes to which fear and supernaturalism can lead us (793; 1425).

 

1382

A plague fatal to many children prevailed in a number of European countries, among them England, Germany, and France; most likely diphtheria. ref

 

1387

Florence, Italy experiences an epidemic of influenza (grippe) (367).

 

c. 1390

Godfrey Chaucer (GB) describes an English physician of the late 14th century in the General Prologue to his Canterbury Tales. The original text is in italics.

“With us there was a doctor of physic;

With us ther was a Doctour of Phisik;

In all this world was none like him to pick

In al this world ne was ther noon hym lik,

For talk of medicine and surgery;

To speke of phisik and of surgerye;

For he was grounded in astronomy.

For he was grounded in astronomye.

He often kept a patient from the pall

He kepte his pacient a ful greet dee

By horoscopes and magic natural

In houres, by his magyk natureel.

Well could he tell the fortune ascendent

Wel koude he fortunen the ascendent.

Within the houses for his sick patient.

Of hisc ymages for his pacient.

He knew the cause of every malady,

He knew the cause of everich maladye,

Were it of hot or cold, of moist or dry,

Were it of hoot or coold, or moyste, or drye,

And where engendered, and of what humour;

And where they engendred, and of what humour.

He was a very good practitioner.

He was a verray parfit praktisour;

The cause being known, down to the deepest root,

The cause yknowe, and of his harm the roote,

Anon he gave to the sick man his boot.

Anon he yaf the sike man his boote.

Ready he was, with his apothecaries,

Ful redy hadde he hise apothecaries,

To send him drugs and all electuaries;

To sende him drogges and his letuaries

By mutual aid much gold they'd always won-

For ech of hem made oother for to wynne

Their friendship was a thing not new begun.

Hir frendshipe nas nat newe to bigynne

Well read was he in Esculapius,

Wel knew he the olde Esculapius,

And Deiscorides, and in Rufus,

And Deyscorides and eek Rufus,

Hippocrates, and Hali, and Galen

Olde Ypocras, Haly, and Galyen

Serapion, Rhazes, and Avicen,

Serapioun, Razis, and Avycen

Averrhoes, Gilbert, and Constantine,

Averrois, Damascien, and Constantyn,

Bernard and Gatisden, and John Damascene.

Bernard, and Gatesden, and Gilbertyn.

In diet he was measured as could be,

Of his diete mesurable was he,

Including naught of superfluity,

For it was of no superfluitee,

But nourishing and easy. It's no libel

But of greet norissyng, and digestible.

To say he read but little in the Bible.

His studie was but litel on the Bible.

In blue and scarlet he went clad, withal,

In sangwyn and in pers he clad was al,

Lined with a taffeta and with sendal;

Lyned with taffata and with sendal-

And yet he was right chary of expense;

And yet he was but esy of dispence;

He kept the gold he gained from pestilence.

He kepte that he wan in pestilence.

For gold in physic is a fine cordial,

For gold in phisik is a cordial,

And therefore loved he gold exceeding all.

Therfore he lovede gold in special (299).

 

1402-1404

There occured an epidemic of the pague in Iceland (793).

1403

Charles Frederick Boulduan (US) and Nils William Boulduan (US) report that Venice, Italy implemented a quarantine (quadraginta = forty days) against the Black Death. The first quarantine station was founded on the small island of Santa Maria di Nazareth adjoining the city (204).

 

1411

Influenza (grippe) was epidemic in Paris, France (367).

 

1414

Influenza (grippe) was epidemic in Paris, France and Italy (367).

 

1417-1430

Florence, Italy periodically experienced an epidemic of the plague. In 1425 dysentery (bloody flux) was at an epidemic level (793).

 

1427

Influenza (grippe) was epidemic in Paris, France (367).

 

1431

Jeanne la Pucelle; Joan the Maid; Joan of Arc (FR) was burned at the stake. If her "story were not so extraordinarily beautiful and terrible, questions concerning her mental health would have attracted little attention.

Had she lived today rather than over six hundred years ago, it is not likely that any physician would seriously consider that her voices and visions were those of angels or saints. Instead, she would be given a diagnosis of delusional disorder, even though the voices and visions, and the deeds they inspired, are why, for many, the maid is not dead, but sleepeth" (899).

 

1444

Nikolaus Krebs of Cues; Nicholas of Cusa; Nicholas Cusa; Nikolas von Cusa; Nicolaus Cusanus (DE) claimed that the Earth moved round the Sun. He also claimed that the stars were other suns and that space was infinite. He believed that the stars had other inhabited worlds orbiting them. He was one of the first scholars who advocated the use of measurements for the determination of pulse, respiration and urinary excretion. He used concave lens spectacles to treat nearsightedness and suggested that plants grow by assimilation of water (1006; 1007).

 

1450-1520

France experienced epidemics of plague, measles, smallpox (red plague), and syphilis (793).

 

1462-1465

The plague was epidemic in Germany (793).

 

1463

Giannozzo Manetti (IT) recounts that at the court of Pope Nicholas V in Dijon, syphilis (le gros mal) was mentioned in open court (567; 907).

 

1466

Paris, France experienced an epidemic of the plague (793).

 

1472

Paolo Bagellardo (IT), in 1472, wrote the first printed work on diseases of children. It includes chapters on many common infections, including tinea capitis, otorrhea, ear abscess, cough, rheumatism and diarrhea (flux) (114).

 

1475

Konrad von Megenberg (DE) wrote Buch der Natur (The Book of Nature), the earliest printed work in which woodcuts representing plants and animals were used to illustrate the text. This work gives a survey of all that was known of natural history at that time and is, besides, the first natural history in the German language (1407). Note: This work was first printed in 1475.

 

Wang Hei (CN) wrote I Lin Chi Yao (Essential Trees in the Forest of Medicine) in which he describes the anatomy of the thyroid gland. He observed that the thyroid lay in front of the larynx and looked like a lump of flesh about the size of a “jubube” (a Chinese date). He described it as “flattish and of a pink colour”. His prescription for goiter was to use dried thyroid from 50 pigs, and adding the resulting powder to cold wine for the treatment of goiter (653). Note: Thyroid organotherapy was in China contemporary with Thomas Linacre (GB).

 

1476

Gulielmus de Saliceto; Gulielmus de Salicetti; Guglielmo Salicetti of Piacenza; William of Salicet (IT) described kidney disease as follows: “The signs of hardness in the kidneys are that the quantity of the urine is diminished, that there is heaviness of the kidneys, and of the spine with some pain: and the belly begins to swell up after a time and dropsy is produced the second day” (425).

 

1477-1479

Italy suffered an epidemic of the plague (793).

 

1478-1479

Plague is epidemic in London (793).

 

1483

Richard III, King of England, is known to have presented an allergic reaction, exhibiting an immediate cutaneous reaction following the ingestion of strawberries. According to Thomas More, King Richard III used his allergy to strawberries to good effect in arranging the judicial murder of Lord William Hastings. The King surreptitiously ate some strawberries just prior to giving an audience to Hastings and promptly developed acute urticaria. He then accused Hastings of putting a curse on him, an action that demanded the head of Hastings on a plate (974).

 

1484

Pope Innocent VIII authorizes burning of witches in the bull entitled Summis desiderantes. ref

 

1485-1551

The English Sweating Sickness, also referred to as Sudor Anglicus, English Sweat, the Sweat, the Swat, the New Acquaintance or “Stoupe! Knave and know thy master”, or “Stup-gallant” (both sarcastic names given by the poor, indicating that this new disease predominantly struck the rich), was and still is a historical and epidemiological mystery (668).

 

1486

Heinrich Institoris (DE) and Jakob Sprenger (DE), in their 1486 Treatise About Workers of Harmful Magic, may have been the first to give a written description of an individual with Tourette’s syndrome when they described a priest with both motor and phonetic tics (729).

Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard (FR) described the clinical condition that would later be called Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (733).

Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette (FR) described a syndrome which usually begins at the age of 7 to 10 years, is characterized by echolalia (the automatic repetition by lunatics of what is said to them; a sign of schizophrenia), pallilalia (repeating the sentences of others) and coprolalia (the compulsory saying of dirty words), a want for touch, stuttering, a lack of muscular coordination with involuntary and purposeless movements, which may consist of mild facial spasms and blinking with the eyes, and/or violent tics in eyes, head, arms, and legs, or other parts of the body. Often there is also echopraxia (involuntary mimicking of the movements of others), incoherent grunts and barks, which may represent suppressed obscenities (584; 585). This is Gilles de la Tourette syndrome.

 

1489

Typhus (camp fever) was epidemic in Spain; most severe in Granada (793).

 

c. 1490

Leonardo da Vinci (IT) dissected at least 30 male and female bodies of various ages to aid in his production of more than 750 anatomical sketches of the human body, including skeleton, muscles, heart, lungs, nerves, blood vessels, viscera, and brain. The accuracy of these drawing was not to be equaled until the time of Sömmerring and Scarpa (295).

He injected ventricles with molten wax to determine their shape, sectioned the eyeball after boiling it in egg white, employed cross sections to study the anatomy of the legs, and produced a remarkably accurate illustration of the fetus in utero. He observed the correct inclination of the pelvis, discovered the frontal and maxillary sinuses and the moderator band of the heart, described in detail the structure and function of the heart valves, and drew precise pictures of the coronary arteries and their course (902).

He wrote that fossils were once-living organisms that had been buried at a time before the mountains were raised: "it must be presumed that in those places there were sea coasts, where all the shells were thrown up, broken, and divided. The stratified stones of the mountains are all layers of clay, deposited one above the other by the various floods of the rivers . . . In every concavity at the summit of the mountains we shall always find the divisions of strata in the rocks." Leonardo appears to have grasped the law of superposition, which would be articulated fully by the Danish scientist Nicolaus Steno in 1669: in any sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks are those at the base. He also appears to have noticed that distinct layers of rocks and fossils could be traced over long distances, and that these layers were formed at different times: " . . . the shells in Lombardy are at four levels, and thus it is everywhere, having been made at various times" (376).

 

1490

Typus manifested itself as a notable destroyer of European armies. Soldiers who had been fighting in Cyprus brought it to Spain (946).

 

Plague is common in Central Europe (793).

 

1492

Once contact with Europeans had been established, Amerindian populations of Mexico and Peru became the victims, on a massive scale, of the common childhood diseases of Europe and Africa (1498).

 

Prior to this date natives of Brazil had been using the ipecac root to treat dysentery (bloody flux) (1071).

 

Ruy Diaz de Isla (ES), Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo (ES) and Bartolomé de Las Casas (ES) wrote books which suggested that syphilis appeared in Western Europe in the late 15th century, having been brought from America by the crew of Columbus (411; 414; 423). Convincing proof of the origin of syphilis is lacking. In addition to syphilis the disease has been called; the disease of the Island of Hispaniola, the disease of Naples, the Italians called it the Spanish or French Disease (Morbus gallicus), the French called it the Italian disease, the Russians called it the Polish disease, and the Arabs called it the disease of the Christians.

 

Smallpox (red plague), which had existed previously in Europe, also got its modern name at this time, to distinguish it from syphilis, which was known as the great pox (793).

 

Pope Innocent VIII, in Rome, had an apoplectic stroke; became weak and sank into a coma. The harrowing story was told that, at the suggestion of a Jewish physician, the blood of three boys was infused into the dying pontiff's veins. They were ten years old and had been promised a ducat each. All three died. The Pope did not benefit and died by the end of that year (726). This is the first recorded attempt at a human-to-human blood transfusion.

Andreas Libavius (DE) was among the first to advocate blood transfusion, though he is not known to have attempted to perform a transfusion. “Let there be a young man, robust, full of spirituous blood, and also an old man, thin, emaciated, his strength exhausted, hardly able to retain his soul. Let the performer of the operation have two silver tubes fitting into each other. Let him open the artery of the young man, and put it into one of the tubes, fastening it in. Let him immediately after open the artery of the old man, and put the female tube into it, and then the two tubes being joined together, the hot and spirituous blood of the young man will pour into the old one as it were from a fountain of life, and all of his weakness will be dispelled” (859; 904).

Francis Potter (GB), in 1650, transfused blood from sheep to sheep. This possibly represents the first blood transfusion in history (1099).

Robert Boyle (GB) also carried out non-human blood transfusions in animals (218).

Richard Lower (GB) and Edmund King (GB), at the suggestion of Christopher Wren (GB), performed some of the first blood transfusions from one animal to another— keeping dogs alive by transfusion of arterial blood from one dog to venous blood of another. Lower later repeated this feat with sheep. In 1667, Lower reported successful blood transfusion from lamb to a man who Arthur Coga, described as an ‘eccentric scholar’ (879-882).

Edmund King (GB) determined that a vein-to-vein transfusion was the safest (787).

Samuel Pepys (GB) in his diary entry of 14 November 1666 states, "Dr. Croone told me that at the meeting of Gresham College tonight, which it seems they now have every Wednesday, there was a pretty experiment of the blood of one dog let out till he died, into the body of another on one side, while all his own ran out on the other side. The first died upon the place, and the other very well and likely to do well"(1072).

Jean-Baptiste Denis (Denys) (FR), assisted by Paul Emmerez (FR), is credited with the first transfusion of animal blood into a human subject. They gave approximately 12 ounces of lamb’s blood to a young man “possessed of an incredible stupidity” on 15 June 1667. This patient and a 45-year-old man who received the second transfusion of sheep’s blood are both described in the 1668 paper; both survived without ill effects (439; 440; 1199).

Jean-Baptiste Denis (Denys) (FR) may have been the first to describe, what we now know as a transfusion reaction. He observed this in one of his patients, who manifested classical signs of a hemolytic (destruction of red cells) reaction (439).

James Blundell (GB), in 1819, performed the first successful transfusion of blood from one human to another. It was in a patient treated for post-partum hemorrhage. Using the patient's husband as a donor, he extracted approximately four ounces of blood from the husband's arm and, using a syringe, successfully transfused the wife. Between 1825 and 1830, he performed 10 transfusions, five of which proved beneficial to his patients, and published these results. He also devised various instruments for performing transfusions and proposed rational indications (190; 191).

Samuel Armstrong Lane (GB), aided by consultant James Blundell (GB), performed the first successful whole blood transfusion to treat hemophilia (781).

Thomas Chalmer Addis (GB) transfused "about 300cc of freshly drawn human phosphated blood" to a patient with hemophilia whose plasma clotting time was thereby shortened from 245 to 24 minutes (normal is 13 minutes). It was 30 minutes two days later, 32 at four days, 55 at eight days, and 200 at 25 days. Addis concluded controversially but correctly that the hemophilic defect lay in the plasma, but wrongly that hemophilic prothrombin abnormally resisted conversion to thrombin; however, prothrombin was still a hypothetical concept in 1910. This experiment took place in 1910 but was not reported until 1916 (22).

 

Nicolò Leoniceno (IT), philosopher, mathematician, linguist, writer, and professor of medicine authored Indications of Errors in Pliny and in Several other Authors Who Have Written on Medicinal Simples. He was a powerful champion of plain truth and common sense against the supposedly infallible authority of books. He devoted himself to the betterment of botany, the materia medica, and knowledge of every kind (853). The plant genus Leonicena was dedicated to him in 1777 (1223).

 

1493

Alessandro Benedetti (IT), professor of anatomy at Padua, accurately described the plague and syphilis (159).

 

Hartmann Schedel (DE) reported an outbreak of diphtheria in Nuremberg Germany (1198).

 

Smallpox (red plague) is reported in Germany . ref

 

1494-1495

The French army at Naples was exposed to an epidemic of syphilis while Iceland had a plague epidemic (793).

1495

Conradus Schellig (DE) wrote an early treatise on syphilis (1202).

 

1496-1500

Syphilis spreads in Europe. ref

 

1496

Joseph Grünpeck (DE) clearly described mixed infections of syphilis and gonorrhea (the clap) (617).

 

1497

Nicolò Leoniceno (IT) authored one of the earliest tracts on syphilis (852).

 

c. 1497

Leonardo da Vinci (IT) in his Trattato della Pittura [Treatise on Painting] wrote, "Li circuli delli rami degli alberi segati mostrano il numero delli suoi anni, e quali furono più umidi o più secchi la maggiore o minore loro grossezza." [The rings around the branches of trees that have been sawn show the number of its years and which [years] were the wetter or drier [according to] the more or less their thickness.] (375) Note: First published in 1637

 

1499-1500

Plague (Yersinia pestis) struck London, causing thousands of deaths, the first of a number of outbreaks in that city (793).

 

1499

Rolandus Parmensis (IT) resected a piece of lung that was infected with worms between two ribs (1037).

 

1500

Leonardo da Vinci (IT) stated, “No animal can live in an atmosphere where a flame does not burn” (376).

Robert Boyle (GB) was to later confirm this experimentally. Boyle made the analogy between fire and life, both being dependent on an essential anonymous element in the atmosphere (216; 217; 219).

 

Antonio Benivieni (IT) practiced medicine in Florence from c. 1460-1502. His brother posthumously published his collection of medical cases as De Abditis Nonnullis ac Mirandis Morborum et Sanationum Causis [The Hidden Causes of Disease], the first book on pathological anatomy. It is the first published account of medical case histories, some 160, and includes many autopsies. Benivieni was the first physician on record to ask permission of relatives for post-mortem examination for the purpose of discovering the exact cause of death. He describes ulceration of the vagina; a fetus which is syphilitic; gall stones; carcinoma of the stomach; fibrinous pericarditis; syphilitic periostitis; and vesical calculus (stone in the bladder) (160; 161).

 

Perhaps the first written record we have of a mother and baby surviving a Caesarean section comes from Switzerland in 1500 when Jacob Nufer, a sow gelder, performed the operation on his wife. After several days in labor and help from thirteen midwives, the woman was unable to deliver her baby. Her desperate husband eventually gained permission from the local authorities to attempt a Caesarean. The mother lived and subsequently gave birth normally to five children, including twins. The Caesarean baby lived to be 77 years old. Since this story was not recorded until 82 years later historians question its accuracy.

"Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd." William Shakespeare (1251).

A woman conducted the first recorded successful Caesarean in the British Empire. Sometime between 1815 and 1821, James Miranda Stuart Barry performed the operation while masquerading as a man and serving as a physician to the British army in South Africa.

While Barry applied Western surgical techniques, nineteenth-century travelers in Africa reported instances of indigenous people successfully carrying out the procedure with their own medical practices. In 1879, for example, one British traveler, R.W. Felkin, witnessed Caesarean section performed by Ugandans. The healer used banana wine to semi-intoxicate the woman and to cleanse his hands and her abdomen prior to surgery. He used a midline incision and applied cautery to minimize hemorrhaging. He massaged the uterus to make it contract but did not suture it; the abdominal wound was pinned with iron needles and dressed with a paste prepared from roots. The patient recovered well, and Felkin concluded that this technique was well developed and had clearly been employed for a long time. Similar reports come from Rwanda, where botanical preparations were also used to anesthetize the patient and promote wound healing.

Numerous references to Caesarean section appear in ancient Hindu, Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, and other European folklore. Ancient Chinese etchings depict the procedure on apparently living women. The Mischnagoth and Talmud prohibited primogeniture when twins were born by Caesarean section and waived the purification rituals for women delivered by surgery. Yet, the early history of Caesarean section remains shrouded in myth and is of dubious accuracy. Even the origin of Caesarean has apparently been distorted over time. The surgical birth of Julius Caesar may be the origin of this myth; however, this seems unlikely since his mother Aurelia is reputed to have lived to hear of her son's invasion of Britain. At that time the procedure was performed only when the mother was dead or dying, as an attempt to save the child for a state wishing to increase its population. Caesarean section most likely derives from the Roman legal code. This law had its origins as the lex Regia but was corrupted into the lex Caesare. Roman law under Julius Caesar decreed that all women who were fated to die at childbirth must be cut open; hence, cesarean. Other possible Latin origins include the verb caedare, meaning to cut, and the term caesones that was applied to infants born by post-mortem operations. Ultimately, though, we cannot be sure of where or when the term Caesarean was derived. Until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the procedure was known as Caesarean operation. This began to change following the publication in 1598 of Jacques Guillimeau's book on midwifery in which he introduced the term section. Increasingly thereafter section replaced operation (1246).

Max Sänger (DE) introduced a major turning point in the development of the caesarean section in 1882, when he introduced the practice of sutural closure of the uterus following Caesarean section operations (1184).

Alfred Jacobus Dührssen (DE) introduced a new variation of the caesarean section in which the surgery was performed via the vaginal canal (469).

 

Spain, Portugal, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland were exposed to a plague epidemic .(793)

 

1500-1600

Southern Italy expressed a psychological illness (trantism) characterized by an extreme impulse to dance. It lasted from the 15th to the 17th century, and was widely believed at the time to have been caused by the bite of a tarantula. Victims seemingly were cured by frenzied dancing (793).

 

1501

Europe experienced an epidemic of Morbus Hungaricus, which was most likely epidemic typhus (camp fever). ref

 

1503

The first hospital in the Americas was established at Santo Domingo in what is now the Dominican Republic (902).

 

Leonardo da Vinci (IT) started his painting of Madonna Lisa Maria de Gherardini (Mona Lisa). A careful clinical examination of the famous painting reveals a yellow irregular leather-like spot at the inner end of the left upper eyelid and a soft bumpy well-defined swelling of the dorsum of the right hand beneath the index finger about 3 cm long. This is probably the first recorded case of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) (1027). She died at the age of 37 from unknown causes.

Portrait of an Elderly Lady painted in 1633 by Frans Hals shows the classic lesions of xanthomas on the dorsum of the hand of a 60-year old lady.

 

c. 1505

"There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things." Niccoló Machiavelli (1469–1527) (896).

 

1506

Christopher Columbus; Cristóbal Colon (nationality unknown) died having suffered from progressive reactive arthritis (899).

 

1507

Leonardo da Vinci (IT), from autopsy, describes what we today call atherosclerosis as follows: "Veins which by the thickening of their tunics in the old restrict the passage of the blood, and by this lack of nourishment destroy their life without any fever, the old coming to fail little by little in slow death" (376; 377).

 

1507 and 1518

Two epidemics of smallpox (red plague) killed from a third to more than half of the native populations of Cuba, Haiti, and Puerto Rico (793).

It is very likely that either Calusa (native Americans) merchants based in Southern Florida or Maya merchants spread the smallpox (red plague) microbes as they made stops along the Gulf Coast of North America. When the first Spanish explorers arrived on the mainland of the Southeastern United States in 1513, a major plague had already depopulated many of the native provinces along the Gulf Coast; Mobile Bay and Pensacola Bay were devastated.

Throughout the Southern Highlands, final town occupation dates typically over a span from 1500 A.D. – 1585 A.D. There is a reason. The primary cause of the continuing debate over the history of the Americas prior to European colonization is a disease holocaust that wiped out at least 90% or more of its indigenous peoples during the immediate years when the Western Hemisphere was first being colonized.

 

1508

Plague reported in England. ref

 

Sweating-sickness epidemic in England (793).

 

1510

Beginning in Sicily an influenza (grippe) pandemic swept Europe (367; 1316).

 

1512

Syphilis struck Japan for the first time and was attributed to Chinese traders coming to Nagasaki (793).

 

1513-1515

Plague is in England. ref

 

1513

Giovanni da Vigo (IT) related in his book La Practica et Cirurgia that he treated syphilis with mercurial inunctions. He also recommended that carious portions of teeth be “completely removed with borer, file and scraper” and "then for preservation of the tooth fill the cavity with gold leaf" (374). See, Abu Zakerijja Jahja ben Maseweih (Arabian), c. 860.

 

Eucharius Rösslin; Eucharius Roessslin; Eucharius Rhodion (DE) wrote, Der Swangern Frawen und Heb Amme Roszgarte [The Rose Garden of Pregnant Women and Midwives]. It represents the first printed monograph on obstetrics and was so popular it went through 100 editions (1162; 1163). Thomas Raynalde (GB) improved Rösslin’s book considerably and published his English version entitled The Byrth of Mankind (1126).

 

1514

Peter Martyr (GB) in a letter to Ludovico Mendoza says that the King's (Henry VIII) physicians fear that he may have the smallpox (red plague) present in England at the time (361; 932).

 

Girolamo Fracastoro (IT) described a disease of cattle in Italy which was very likely foot-and mouth disease (538).

 

1516

Pietro Martire d’Anghiera (IT) described the arrow poison (curare) used by South American Indians (370). Two plants from the Amazon basin produce curare, Strychnos guianensis called pot curare and Chrondodendron tomentosum called tube curare. The latter is used to produce tubocurarine used in modern medicine. Walter Raleigh (GB), in 1596, gave an early report on the arrow poison (curare) (1116).

 

1516-1517

The sweating-sickness is epidemic in England (793).

 

Diphtheria (malignant sore throat) is in Amsterdam and the Rhineland. ref

 

1518

Thomas Linacre (GB), along with Cardinal Wolsey, persuaded Henry VIII, King of England, to establish the Royal College of Physicians of London, with Linacre serving as its first president. This college had the power to examine candidates and license them if they passed an examination, graduates of Oxford and Cambridge being exempted. Linacre is also important because he was a first rate Latin and Greek scholar who translated Galen (Galeni) from the Greek into Latin (902).

 

Jacopo Berengario da Capri; Jacobus Berengarius Carpensis; Giacomo Berengario da Capri; Jacopo Barigazzi (IT) contributed to medicine by writing the most important 16th century work on craniocerebral surgery. It became a reference for later generations of physicians, in which he described an entire set of surgical instruments to be used for cranial operations to treat head traumas (166). Berengario contributed significantly to human brain anatomy, with a detailed description of the meninges and cranial nerves and the first comprehensive view of the ventricular system, including choroid plexuses, interventricular foramen, infundibulum, pituitary stalk and gland. Ref

 

"Dancing mania" is epidemic in Strasbourg, France (793).

 

Smallpox (red plague) is epidemic in Hispaniola (793).

 

1519-1525

Ireland is ravaged by epidemics of plague, typhus (camp fever), smallpox (red plague), and influenza (grippe) (793).

1520-1521

Smallpox (red plague) followed by starvation killed millions of the native inhabitants of Mexico. Introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Panfilo de Narvaez on April 23, 1520, it rapidly spread inland, and was credited with the victory of Cortes over the Aztec empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521. From Mexico it spread south into Central and South America, exterminating huge numbers of natives in those areas as well (793).

The most likely scenario is that either Calusa merchants based in southern Florida or Maya merchants spread the small pox microbes as they made stops along the North American Gulf Coast.

Long before 1775, repeated bouts of Old World pestilence occurred in the years that followed Cortes's conquest. Smallpox (red plague), measles, influenza (grippe), mumps, typhus (camp fever), cholera, plague, malaria (ague), yellow fever, scarlet fever, whooping cough, and diphtheria wreaked havoc (510).

 

1520-1600

France is visited by epidemics of the plague (793).

1521

Jacopo Berengario da Carpi; Giacomo Berengario da Carpi (more correctly Barigazzi) (IT) wrote Carpi Commentaria cum Amplissimis additionibus Super Anatomia Mundini, in 1521, then Isagogae Breves, in 1522. He distinguished the chyliferous ducts from the veins, described the vermiform appendix, mentions that the common biliary duct opens into the duodenum where bile often stains it yellow, gave a clear account of the thymus gland, discussed the action of the cardiac valves, and described a horse shoe kidney. Vas deferens is a term he originated (167-169). He was the first anatomist to recognize the importance of anatomical illustrations properly related to the text.

 

1522

Alessandro Achillini (IT) wrote a commentary on Mondino in which he gave the first descriptions of the malleus and incus, ossicles of the ear, the submaxillary duct, the ileocecal valve, rediscovered the fornix and infundibulum and the cerebral cavities (17). See, Thomas Wharton (GB), 1656, rediscovery of the submaxillary duct.

 

Cambridge, UK experiences an epidemic of typhus (camp fever) (793).

 

1523

Jacopo Berengario da Capri; Giacomo Berengario da Carpi (IT), Bernardino Partenio (IT), and Benedetto Faelli (IT) were the first to pictorially present the location of the vermiform appendix in man. They described appendicitis in a post-mortem examination (168; 169). See, Fernel, 1526.

Guillaume de Baillou; William of Ballion; Wilhelm Ballonius (FR) described acute (gangrenous) appendicitis in 1734 (120; 965). Note: Baillou is considered the founder of modern epidemiology (393).

Claudius Aymand (FR) performed the first successful appendectomy. He removed an appendix containing a calcified mass surrounding a pin (60).

Lorenz Heister (DE) was the first to study the pathology of appendicitis. He described appendicitis as follows: "I found the small guts very red and inflamed in several places…. But, when I was about to demonstrate the situation of the great guts, I found the vermiform process of the caecum preternaturally black, adhering closer to the peritonaeum than usual. As I now was about to separate it…the membranes of this process broke…and discharged two or three spoonfuls of matter. This instance may stand as a proof of the possibility of inflammations arising, and abscesses forming, in the appendicula" (656; 657).

John W.K. Parkinson (GB) performed a post-mortem on a boy finding impacted material in the appendix, which had become inflamed, with obstruction, perforation, and peritonitis. From these clinical observations, Parkinson was able to give a good description, in 1812, of fatal appendicitis (1056). His brother James Parkinson (GB) communicated his work.

Francois Mélier (FR) described 6 cases of appendicitis at autopsy and ascribed the origin of purulent iliac tumor (appendicitis) to inflammation of the appendix and suggested the possibility of appendectomy as an operation (951).

Robert Lawson Tait (GB) performed a successful appendectomy and drained a large abscess in 1880 (1324).

Reginald Heber Fitz (US) demonstrated the pathology of the vermiform appendix and advocated immediate radical surgical treatment of acute appendicitis by removal of the offending organ, i.e., appendectomy. In this paper he coined the term appendicitis (523). Delaying medical treatment was the norm at this time.

Abraham Groves (CA) on 10 May 1883 performed an appendectomy on a young boy. He removed the inflamed appendix after ligating its base and the mesentery. The appendiceal stump was sterilized by means of a probe heated in the flame of a lamp (614).

Rudolf Ulrich Krönlein (CH), in 1884, would also perform an appendectomy for appendicitis. The patient died from complications within a few days (802).

Thomas George Morton (US) was one of the first to deliberately operate for and remove the inflamed appendix after correct diagnosis, April 1887. The patient survived. Case reported by Woodbury (1483).

Nicholas Senn (CH-US) was among the first surgeons to diagnose acute appendicitis and to perform a successful appendectomy (1233).

Edward R. Cutler (US) performed the first clean (unruptured) appendectomy in 1887 (1165).

Owen Harding Wangensteen (US) and Clarence Dennis (US) provided experimental proof of the obstructive origin of appendicitis in man (1429).

 

1524

Ulrich Ellenbog (DE) wrote the first work on an occupational disease. It is a pamphlet on the diseases of goldsmiths and the first known work on industrial hygiene and toxicology. Written in 1473 it was not published until 1524 (480).

Theophrastus Phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim; Paracelsus (CH) wrote the first monograph on the diseases of an occupational group, miners. He described diseases resulting from contact with metals, those acquired from the breathing of fumes produced by smelters, including mercury and arsenical poisoning (1043).

Bernardino Ramazzini (IT) discussed the etiology, treatment, and prevention of over 50 diseases associated with various trades. He discussed mercury poisoning in surgeons and lead poisoning in painters, as well as the sciatica of potters and eye troubles of painters (1117-1119).

Théodore Tronchin (CH) showed that the so-called 'Poitou-colic' was caused by drinking water that had passed through lead gutters (1362).

George Baker (GB) proved that Devonshire colic (from cider drinking) was caused by the lead used in vats and cider presses (116).

John Ayrton Paris (GB) noticed that arsenic fumes ("arsenical vapor") might contribute to the occurrence of scrotal skin cancer in the copper-smelting works of Cornwall and Wales (1055).

Jonathan Hutchinson (GB) reported on the occurrence of skin cancer resulting from the medical use of arsenic (719).

Ludwig Wilhelm Carl Rehn (DE) reported the appearance of urinary bladder tumors among men employed in the German aniline dyestuff industry in the production of 'fuchsin' (magenta) (1132).

By the year 1907 it was officially recognized in Great Britain that cancer of any cutaneous site could be caused by pitch, tar, or tarry compounds (658).

Katsusaburo Yamagiwa (JP) and Koichi Ichikawa (JP) were the first to demonstrate that skin cancers can be induced by repeated exposure of mammalian skin to coal tar (1490; 1491).

 

1525-1527

Smallpox (red plague) in Peru killed the Inca ruler, Huayna Capac, and some 200,000 others, and destroyed the Inca Empire (793).

 

c. 1526

"All substances are poisonous, there is none which is not a poison; the right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy." Paracelsus (1047).

 

Theophrastus Phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim; Paracelsus (CH) in his, Die Grosse Wundartznei, discouraged the treating of wounds with irritating solutions and emphasized the natural healing powers of the tissues. His monograph Diseases that Deprive Man of His Reason is an early classic on mental diseases. He observed cysticeri—the larval stage of parasitic worms—in brains of deceased patients with epilepsy; noted the relationship between cretinism and endemic goiter; prepared and popularized many tinctures and extracts including laudanum (alcoholic tincture of opium) which he named; and popularized the use of mercury, lead, sulfur, iron, arsenic, and copper sulfate in medicine (1044-1047).

 

1526

Jean Francois Fernel; Joannis Fernelii; Joannes Fernelius (FR) was the first modern physician to make dissection an important part of his clinical duties, and the first to describe post-mortem appendicitis (See, Aulus Cornelius Celsus (Roman) in 30 B.C.E.), peristalsis, and the central canal of the spinal cord. He introduced the terms physiology and pathology, noted that the arteries increased in size during systole, reported that some nerves are sensory and others motor (See, Herophilus of Alexandria, 300 B.C.E.), that the meninges of the brain have sensation while the brain itself lacks a sense of touch, and the anterior brain is the origin and seat of sensation, and the posterior of motion. He described an epidemic of influenza (grippe) in 1544 and noted encephalitis as a complication, gave an excellent description of syphilis (which he called lues venereae) and pointed out that an infant could contract it from suckling. He rejected mercury in its treatment, preferring guaiac. Fernel was also an astronomer and the first to accurately measure a meridian of longitude. Within 30 years after Columbus’ voyages he wrote three treatises on the earth as a sphere, whirling with other planets about the sun (511; 512; 514-516; 518).

 

1526

Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (IT) wrote Sumario de la Natural Historia delas Indias; largely a translation of the writing of Francisco Hernández de Toledo (ES). It described many New World animals, such as the tapir, opossum, manatee, iguana,armadillo, ant-eaters, sloth, pelican, humming birds, etc. (422). Note: Francisco Hernández de Toledo (ES) described over 3,000 Mexican plants, a feat that was significant because classical texts did not amass so much plant biodiversity. His dedication to helping generate an early taxonomy for New World plants allowed for European use. Since the pre-existing botanical terminology was so limited, he used native names (mostly Nahuatl) when classifying the plants. Some specific plants of the New World he described include: vanilla, the first written account of it; corn (Zea mays L.), in long and detailed chapters; four varieties of cacao; tobacco; chilis; tomatoes, in four chapters; and cacti, in 14 chapters. His notes were published in Mexico in 1604 and 1614, describing many animals for the first time: coyote, buffalo, axolotl, porcupine, pronghorn antelope, horned lizard, bison, peccary and the toucan. He also figured many animals for the first time: ocelot, rattlesnake, manatee, alligator, armadillo, and the pelican.

 

c. 1527

Luca Ghini (IT) is notable as the creator of the first recorded herbarium, as well as, the first botanical garden in Europe (731).

 

1527

Theophrastus Phillippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim; Paracelsus (CH) mentions in his writings of 1527 that adding wine or vinegar to urine could cause some urines to curdle and yield a milky precipitate (479). Doubtless this was albumin in the urine.

Frederik Dekkers (NL) in examining the urine of diabetics found that it contained albumin (acetic acid test) and tasted like sweet milk (124). He also found that the urine of patients with phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) contains protein, i.e., proteinuria (436).

Frederick Dekkers (NL) reported in 1694 that certain urines are coagulable by heat (187). See, Domenico Felice Antonio Cotugno, 1775.

William Cruickshank (GB) carried out extensive chemical studies and reported in 1797 that the urines of certain dropsical patients could be coagulated by nitrous acid or by heat, but that “in the dropsy proceeding from diseased liver and other morbid viscera the urine does not coagulate either by nitrous acid or heat (1157).

William Charles Wells (US-GB) related that albumin is commonly found in the urine of patients suffering from dropsy (edema). This is commonly referred to as proteinuria (1444). See, Richard Bright, 1827.

 

1528

Typhus (camp fever) attacked French troops besieging Naples, killing well over half the army. The remaining soldiers retreated and were then destroyed by forces of the Holy Roman Empire. The troops of Charles V later suffered their own defeat to typhus (camp fever) at the French city of Metz in 1552 (793).

 

1529-1530

Sweating-sickness is in England then spreads over Europe. ref

 

1529

An outbreak of the dreaded sweats (the modern-day equivalent of this disease is unknown) led Martin Luther and Zwingli to break off their colloquy in Marburg, without achieving agreement on a definition of the Eucharist. This appears to have sealed the split between Lutheran and Swiss (soon to become Calvinist) reform along lines that deeply affected subsequent European history, and has endured to the present (338; 793).

Joannes Theodor van den Kasteele (NL) discussed the epidemiology of sweating-sickness (1378).

 

1530

Otto Brunfels (DE) authored his two volume Herbarum Vivae Icones that made him immortal in the field of botany (247). In a dedicatory letter to the Senate of Strasbourg he described this work as follows, "In this whole work I have no other end in view than that of giving a prop to fallen botany; to bring back to life a science almost extinct. And because of this has seemed to me to be in no other way possible than by thrusting aside all the old herbals, and publishing new and life-like engravings, and along with them accurate descriptions extracted from ancient and trustworthy authors, I have attempted both; using the greatest care and pains that both should be faithfully done."

The plant genus Brunfelsia was named in his honor in 1703 (1100).

 

Girolamo Fracastoro; Hieronymus Fracastorius (IT), a Veronese physician, poet, and geologist wrote the poem Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus. The main figure in this poem is the shepherd Syphilis from whom the name for the venereal disease is derived. In the poem the young shepherd is stricken by a malady as a penalty for lack of respect to the gods. So immensely popular was the poem that the name of its hero has remained associated with the disease ever since. Records indicate that the disease in Europe, in its acute phase, was extraordinarily malignant for about 60 years beginning in the 1490’s; thereafter, it became milder, though its late consequences remain serious (537-539).

 

Plague is epidemic in Edinburgh, Scotland (793).

 

The College of France, formerly known as the Collège Royal or as the Collège impérial was founded in 1530 by François I (463).

 

1531-1536

Plague is reported in England ref.

 

1535

Valerius Cordus (DE) authored Dispensatorium, or manner of preparing all medicines, which was so popular that it was reprinted for 150 years. In 1561 his four volume De Historia Plantarum was published followed by a fifth volume in 1563 (351; 352).

Although Cordus died at the age of twenty-nine his works place him among the great botanists of all time. Edward Lee Greene in describing him said, "Cordus left no dissertations on the philosophy of plants, but only his descriptions of some five hundred species; and it is out of these fragments, all posthumously published, that we gather proofs of his resplendent genius" (477). The plant genus Cordia was dedicated to him in 1703 (1100). In his De Historia Plantarum he was the first to use the term pollen (575).

 

Jean Ruel (FR) authored De Natura Stirpium, a great classic in the field of botany (1170). Of this work Edward Lee Greene says, " …it is the first volume produced within the period of the Renaissance which from beginning to end carries the implication that botany is botany, and that pharmacy, like agriculture, pomology, and horticulture, is but one of its departments, and all of them subsidiary to the philosophy of plant life as a whole" (477).

 

1535-1536

Plague, typhus (camp fever), smallpox (red plague), and relapsing fever are all epidemic in Ireland (793).

1536

Nicolo Massa (IT) discussed the cerebrospinal fluid and described the prostate gland for the first time (934).

 

Girolamo Cardano; Jerome Cardan (IT) gave one of the earliest descriptions of typhoid fever. "The thirty-sixth fatal error is, in that disease, which produces in the body, marks like the bites of fleas. For they seek to call this by the name of measles, we shall call it from its resemblance pulicaris…. Measles are elevated above the skin… Morbus pulicaris is wholly without elevations, and only spots on the skin are present, in its nature deadly." (272)

 

1537

Ambroise Paré (FR), a master barber-surgeon who served many years in the army, declared that supposedly poisoned gunshot wounds were simple contused wounds, and proceeded to bandage them without hot oil. (Note: Most surgeons of the day practiced searing heavily. They disinfected gunshot wounds with boiling oil and stopped the bleeding by cauterizing the arteries without anesthetics. Paré used soothing ointments for gunshot wounds and tied off arteries and veins to stop bleeding.) He successfully treated gunshot wounds with bandages soaked in egg yolk, turpentine, and oil of roses. He was the first to employ the ligature in the case of arterial hemorrhage and in amputation. He invented many surgical instruments, introduced massage, artificial limbs and artificial eyes into surgery, described congenital syphilis in detail, championed the podalic version in difficult labor and practiced induced labor for serious uterine hemorrhage. With Franco (FR) he was one of the first to describe in detail the principles and techniques in the surgical treatment of cleft palate (454; 1048; 1050; 1053; 1054). Note: The use of ligature to stop bleeding was not his invention but rather had been in use for at least three centuries before his time.

 

Antonio Musa Brasavola; Antonius M. Brasavola; Antonius M. Brasavolus; Antonius M. Brassavolus (IT) authored Examen Omnium Simplicium (An Examination of All Medicinal Simples), covering drugs/herbs dispensed in the shops or apothecaries. It became the most popular book on botany that had ever been written (221).

 

1538-1540

Jean Francois Fernel; Joannis Fernelii; Joannes Fernelius (FR) mentions the beginning of a pandemic of dysentery (bloody flux) in Europe (517).

 

1538

Universidad de Santo Tomás de Aquino [St. Thomas Aquinas University], the first university in the Americas, was established at Santo Domingo (in what is now the Dominican Republic) by papal bull in 1538 (346). It was followed in 1551 by the University of Mexico and in 1636 by Harvard University, in the U.S.A.

 

1539

Influenza (grippe) is common in Europe and England. ref

 

c. 1540

Girolamo Dorzellini (IT) and Alessandro Massaria (IT) wrote epidemiological works on plagues (935; 1232).

 

1541

Giovanni Battista Canano; Jean Baptiste Cananus (IT) wrote Musculorum Humani Corporis Picturata Dissectio in which he illustrated and described his discovery of the palmaris brevis muscle, the oblique head of the adductor pollicis. He was the first to present anatomical drawings of lumbricales and interossei of the hand (267). He is incorrectly credited with the discovery of the function of the valves within the veins. See, Amatus Lisitanus, 1547.

 

1542

Nicolaus Copernicus (DE) described the true system of the sun, stars and planets in his great work, De Revolutionibus Orbium, which established the Sun, not the Earth, as the hub of our solar system (349). See, Nicholas of Cusa, 1444.

 

Leonhard Fuchs (DE), along with his paid assistants Albrecht Meyer (DE), Heinrich Füllmaurer (DE), and Veit Rudolf Speckle (DE) authored Historia Stirpium. One of the most beautiful of all herbals; it contains 500 large high-quality plates of plants. Digitalis purpurea (red foxglove) is here described for the first time (548; 959). The plant genus Fuchsia was named in his honor in 1703 (1100).

 

1542

Joachim Brandenburg's army, in its attempt to regain the cities of Buda and Pest, was hampered by an epidemic of typhus (camp fever) (793).

 

Jean Francois Fernel; Joannis Fernelii; Joannes Fernelius (FR) found that cardiac systole and diastole coincide respectively with expansion and contraction of the arteries and demonstrated that the mitral valve was completely closed during systole and that the transmission of pulsations back to the pulmonary vein was thus checked (513).

 

1543

Luca Ghini (IT) was one of the first to use dried plants for scientific study. In 1543-44 he established the first botanic garden, at Pisa, Italy (83). Cesalpino was one of his pupils. Botanical gardens were soon established in Florence (1544), Bologna (1547), and Paris (1626) (528).

Pitton de Tournefort (FR), around 1700, used the term herbarium for a collection of dried plants. Linnaeus took up this term (83; 427).

 

Andreas Wesele Vesalius (NL) published a book, which was the most accurate description of the human anatomy to date. De Corporis Humani Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) with its excellent illustrations by Johann Stephan van Kalkar (NL) is one of the great books in the history of science; containing many exceptional illustrations drawn from what was seen in actual dissections rather than resorting to a previous authority. He was the first to illustrate the malleus and the incus and to show their correct association with the tympanic membrane; he gave them their common names. He did not, however, describe the third ossicle, i.e., the stapes. He concluded that the central seat of olfaction is probably the brain, and not the ventricles. He used glandula pituitaria, from which the English name pituitary gland is ultimately derived (1389). Vesalius did away with the old system of having demonstrators present the parts as the teacher mentioned them. He performed the dissections himself, often before large crowds, and soon realized that the anatomy presented by Galen (Galeni) was weak and often wrong. Vesalius taught in the medical school at Padua, Italy from 1539 to 1546 and is considered the founder of scientific anatomy and of the technique of modern dissection.

Vesalius used endotrachael ventilation in pigs and dogs to view the functioning of the heart and lungs. The trachea of a pig or a dog was exposed and a reed or cane was inserted into it and he advised: "You will then blow into this, so that the lung may rise again and the animal take in air. Indeed, with a slight breath in the case of this living animal the lung will swell to the full extent of the thoracic cavity, and the heart become strong and exhibit a wondrous variety of motions" (782; 1389). See Alessandro Achillini, 1522

 

 Volcher Coiter; Volcher Koiter; Volcherus Coeiter; Volcker Koyter (NL) wrote the first monograph on the ear. In it he correctly traced the vibrations constituting sound from the external ear to the cochlea. This collection also contains his first treatise on bird anatomy (333). Note: This book is a collection of monographs.

Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia (IT), in 1548, was the first to accurately describe the stapes, the oval window, and the round window of the ear (728; 1201). His book was published posthumously.

Antonio Maria Valsalva (IT) described what has come to be called the Valsalva maneuver. "Thus (in order to offer one of many proofs) if someone would instill a medicinal fluid into the tympanic cavity…or in the outer portion of the auditory meatus and if now, with mouth and nose closed, an attempt is made to compress the air, fluid would flow copiously from the auditory meatus. I recommend this for a prompt evacuation of a suppurative lesion since this may be remedial for the illness that might not occur by itself…. However, many more benefits may be derived from the physician's knowledge of these functions."

He wrote that the zona cochlea is composed of the finest terminations of the auditory nerve; used the terms scala vestibuli and scala tympani; divided the ear into external, middle, and inner parts; and recognized perilymph within the inner ear. He coined the term Eustachian tube (1373; 1374).

Christian Ludwig Willich (DE) discovered the endolymph within the membranous labyrinth of the ear (1460).

Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens (FR) suggested that the semicircular canals of the inner ear do not function in hearing. He argued that they play a role in reflexive orientation (529).

adam Politzer (HU-AT) provided experimental proof that the ossicles of the ear vibrate to sound stimuli (1102).

 

Andreas Wesele Vesalius (NL) was the first to state the theory behind artificial ventilation, "But that life may ... be restored to the animal, an opening must be attempted in the trunk of the trachea, in which a tube of reed or cane should be put; you will then blow into this, so that the lung may rise again and the animal take in air. ... And as I do this, and take care that the lung is inflated in intervals, the motion of the heart and arteries does not stop..." Andreas Wesele Vesalius (1389).

 

Marianus Sanctus de Barletta; Mariano Santo di Barletta (IT) gave the first account of median lithotomy, a new method that appeared around 1520. Francisco Romano of Cremona (IT) was the person who devised this technique (394).

 

England experienced the plague. ref

 

1545

A smallpox (red plague) epidemic occurred in Goa, India. Some 8,000 children were reported to have died (952).

 

Charles Estienne; Carolus Stephanus (FR) and Etienne Jollat de la Rivière (FR) described the veins of the human liver and the central canal of the spinal cord. They were the first to trace blood vessels into the substance of bone. They first described what is now known as Glisson’s capsule of the liver and recognized that the esophagus and trachea were different organs. Additionally, their text emphasized the parotid, lacrimal, thymus, and lymphatics at the root of the mesentery, and the armpit and groin. Their drawings of the human sternum refuted Galenic errors (487).

 

Ambroise Paré (FR) reported a controlled medical experiment in which he evaluated onions as a dressing for wounds, a treatment that had been suggested to him by "an old country woman". He dressed parts of the wounds and burns with crushed onion and left other parts either untouched or treated with more traditional remedies. Crushed onion seemed to be more effective than the alternatives (1052). This is one of the earliest recorded medical experiments with controls.

 

Thomas Phaer; Thomas Phayer; Thomas Phaire (GB), in 1545, wrote the first English-language book on pediatrics, The Boke of Chyldren, which included chapters on aposteme of the brayne (meningitis), scalles of the heed, styfnesse of the lymmes, bloodshoten eyes [Kawasaki disease?], diseases in the eares, canker in the mouth, quynsye or swelling of the throte, coughe, feblenesse of the stomacke and vomiting, flux of the belly (diarrhea), wormes, small pockes and measels, fevers, and consumpcion (1074).

 

1546

Charles Estienne; Carolus Stephanus (FR), Etienne de la Rivière (FR), Jollat (FR), and Geoffrey Tory (FR) described morbid cavitation in the spinal cord (syringomyelia) (486).

 

George Bauer; Georgius Agricola (DE) wrote the first book on physical geology, De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, which is important because of its descriptions of wind and water as powerful geological forces, and for its explanation of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions as produced by subterranean vapors and gases heated by the Earth's internal heat. His book De Natura Fossilium (On the Nature of Fossils), also published in 1546, is considered his most important contribution to paleontology. This book is not restricted to what we call fossils today: the Latin word fossilis meant anything dug out of the ground, and Agricola's book included descriptions of all kinds of minerals, gemstones, and even gallstones, in addition to what we would call fossils now. Agricola's work summed up what the ancient Greek and Roman authors had written about minerals and included a list of a hundred ancient authors whose works Agricola had consulted -- but Agricola was not afraid to contradict the ancients' opinions if they did not fit with his own experience. His work represented a major advance over previous writings on rocks and minerals in that it classified them, not alphabetically or by their supposed mystical powers, but by simple physical properties: "Thus minerals have differences which we observe by color, taste, odor, place of origin, natural strength and weakness, shape, form, and size." Agricola gave standardized names to various minerals, and not only recorded their appearance but the localities where they could be found. He also noted how the same fossils might have different colors and appearances in different places. Although Agricola's work included no pictures, his descriptions of fossils are often instantly recognizable. In his book De Re Metallica (On the Nature of Metals) Agricola noted that rocks were laid down in definite layers, or strata, and that these layers occurred in a consistent order and could be traced over a wide area. This observation of Agricola's was one of the first contributions to stratigraphic geology, and one that would become important in understanding the arrangement and origins of the rocks of the Earth.

He destructively distilled amber and found that succinic acid sublimed and settled as crystals (28-30; 521).

 

Girolamo Fracastoro; Hieronymus Fracastorius (IT) in his treatise De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis et Eorum Curatione described three types of contagion: 1) contagion by contact alone; (2) contagion by fomites; and (3) contagion at a distance. He defines fomites as clothes, wooden things, and other things of those sorts, which in themselves are not corrupted but are able to preserve the original germs of the contagion and to give rise to its transference to others. It was his belief that infection which appears among fruits is transferred in a similar manner as that produced by contact among humans.

Fracastoro points out that all contagions do not behave alike. Some attack one organ, others another organ. Variola (smallpox, red plague) and measles attack children by preference. Every person is attacked once, but it is rare for people who have had these diseases once to have them again. He believed that tuberculosis was infectious and attacked only the lungs. He discussed the epidemiology of petechial fever and syphilis vividly, noting that syphilis could be transferred to infants by way of an infected mother’s blood.

He observed that hydrophobia (rabies) was only propagated by the bite of a rabid dog and described the affliction as follows: "Its incubation (following a bite by a rabid animal) is so stealthy, slow and gradual that the infection is very rarely manifest before the 20th day, in most cases the 30th, and in many cases not until four or six months have elapsed. There are cases recorded in which it became manifest a year after the bite." Once the disease takes hold "the patient can neither stand nor lie down; like a madman he flings himself hither and thither, tears his flesh with his hands, and feels intolerable thirst. This is the most distressing symptom, for he so shrinks from water and all liquids that he would rather die than drink or be brought near to water; it is then that they bite other persons, foam at the mouth, their eyes look twisted, and finally they are exhausted and painfully breath their last" (538).

 

Antonio Musa Brasavola; Antonius Musa Brasavolus (IT) published an account of tracheostomy for tonsillar obstruction. He is the first person known to have performed the operation (222). See, The Rgveda, 2K B.C.E., Asclepiades c. 100 B.C.E.,and The Talmud c.400.

 

1547

Amatus Lusitanus; Amato Lusitano; João Rodriques de Castelo Branco (PT) along with others he discovered the circulation of the blood, and through dissections of the Azygos vein, he was the first to observe and speculate about function of the venous valves found there (889).

 

Plague is in England. ref

 

1549

Pedro Jimeno; Pedro Gimeno (ES) described the stapes of the ear (744). See, Ingrassia, 1543

 

1551

Pierre Bélon; Pierre Bélon du Mans; Petrus Bellonius Cenomanus (FR) wrote L'Histoire Naturelle des Estranges Poissons Marins [The Natural History of Strange Marine Fishes] (1551) and La Nature et Diversité des Poissons [The Nature and Diversity of Fishes] (1555). This latter work included 110 animal species and offered many new observations and corrections to Herodotus. L'Histoire de la Nature des Oyseaux Avec Leurs Descriptions et Naïfs Portraicts [The Natural History of Birds with Their Descriptions and Natural Portraits Taken from Nature] (1555) was his picture book, with improved animal classification and accurate anatomical drawings. In this he published a man's and a bird's skeleton side by side to show the resemblance (152-157).

 

Konrad Gesner; Conrad Gessner; Conrad Geßner; Conrad von Gesner; Conradus Gesnerus; Conrad Gesner (CH) wrote Historia Animalium, a five-volume work of over 3,500 pages containing nearly 1,000 woodcuts. It marks the beginning of scientific zoology and is considered the best purely zoological work of the Renaissance. He also wrote Opera Botanica. These works would influence such later taxonomists as Carl Linné; Carl von Linné; Carolus Linnaeus and Cuvier (576; 577; 1354). The plant genus Gesnera was dedicated to him in 1703 (1100).

 

Ambroise Paré (FR) states that severing a nerve is acceptable treatment for severe pain (1049).

 

Influenza (grippe) is common in France. ref

 

Sweating-sickness is epidemic in England (793).

 

1552

Jerome Bock; Jerome Boch; Hieronymous Tragus; Hieronymous Bock; Hieronymous Herbarius; Jerome Botanist; Jerome Herbalist (DE) authored De Stirpium, a botanical treatise of the highest order, in which he described many plants in superb verbal delineation; some for the first time (195). The plant genus Tragia was dedicated to him in 1703 (1100).

 

Bartolomeo Eustachi; Bartolomeo Eustachio; Bartolomeo Eustachius (IT) wrote Tabulae Anatomicae in which the drawings of the face, larynx, and sympathetic nervous system are so good that they were unsurpassed until modern times. He did discover and describe the thoracic duct but the Eustachian tube, which bears his name, was not his discovery, having been known to Alcmaèon and Aristotle. The 1714 reference contains the first detailed description with accurate drawings of the adrenal glands, which he called glandulae renibus incumbentes [the glands resting on the kidneys](489; 491; 492). Eustachio was, however, the first to accurately describe the tuba auditiva (Eustachian tube) in 1564 (490). Note: Eustachi completed his anatomical copper plates in 1552. The Italian anatomist Antonio Maria Valsalva, Professor of Anatomy at Bologna, introduced the term Eustachian tube. See, Valsalva, 1704 in the year 1543 in this document.

 

Jacobus Benignus Winslow (DK-FR) coined the phrase sympathetic nerve because he believed that these nerves were concerned with both the control of viscera and the production of sympathy (1469).

 

Girolamo Cardano; Jerome Cardan (IT), mathematician and physician, in 1552, showed remarkable insight into the concept of allergy when he cured John Hamilton, the Archbishop of Edinburgh, of asthma by forbidding him to use feathers in his bed (273).

 

Typhus (camp fever) was epidemic in Metz, France and Charles V's army suffered dysentery (bloody flux) (793).

c. 1553

Blaise de Vigenere (FR) produced benzoic acid as a sublimation product from benjamin (gum benzoin) (958).

 

Theodor Turquet de Mayerne (FR), Pierre-Jean Robiquet (FR), and Antoine-Francois Boutron-Charlard (FR) are also credited with producing benzoic acid, although at later dates (1150; 1154).

 

Cristóbal Méndez (ES) wrote Libro del Exercicio Corporal [Body Exercise Book] in which he extols the virtues of exercise (953).

 

Edward Wotton; Edoardi Wottoni (GB) wrote De Differentiis Animalium [On the Differences of Animals] He is credited with starting the modern study of zoology, by separating out much of the fanciful and folkloric additions that had been added over time to the body of zoological knowledge (1485).

 

1553

Miguel Servet y Reves; Michael Servetus; Miguel Serveto; Villanovanus (ES) described the lesser circulation (pulmonary circulation) of blood through the lungs and showed that the blood is purified by respiration in the lungs. He asserted that there are vessels in the lungs “formed out of vein and artery.” Servetus reasoned that the pulmonary artery is too large and carries too much blood to serve merely for nutrition of the lungs (339; 1240; 1241; 1486).

Quoting Servetus, "It is in the lungs, consequently, that the mixture (of the inspired air with the blood) takes place, and it is in the lungs also, not in the heart, that the crimson colour of the blood is acquired" (1029). See, Ibn Nafis, 1246. Note: Severtus sent his book to John Calvin, who considered it heresy, had him arrested, jailed, and burned at the stake within the year of publication.

 

Pedro de Cieza de Leon (ES) wrote Chronica del Peru [Chronicles of Peru], which contains among other things accounts of how natives used coca leaves, potato, and curare (313). Note: Nicolas Monardes (ES) made the first scientific reference to coca (970). Coca was later named Erythroxylon coca, meaning red wood.

 

1554

Rembert Dodoens; Rembertus Dodonäus; Rembert van Joenckema (BE) authored Cruydeboeck into which he collected and edited much of the botanical knowledge available. It treated in detail especially the medicinal herbs (452). The plant genus Dodonæa was dedicated to him in 1737 (867).

 

Guillaume Rondelet (FR-IT) published books describing and illustrating fish, seals, whales, mollusks, and worms. Rondolet identified 244 species of fish (1158; 1159).

 

Johannes Lange (DE) gave one of the first descriptions of anemia, which he called morbus virgineus[virgin disease]. "Her face, which…was distinguished by rosiness of cheeks and redness of lips, is somehow as if exsanguinated, sadly paled, the heart trembles with every movement of her body, and the arteries of her temples pulsate, & she is seized with dyspnoea in dancing or climbing the stairs… & the legs…become edematous at night…. This disease frequently attacks virgins, when now mature they pass from youth to virility. For at this time, the menstrual blood flows from the liver to the…womb" (819).

Jean de Varanda (FR) renamed this disease chlorosis. The popular English term was the green sickness, referring to the greenish hue assumed by Caucasians when their blood is low in hemoglobin (429).

Pierre Blaud (FR) enjoyed considerable success recommending the use of pills containing ferrous sulfate for the treatment of chlorosis (189).

 

Jean Francois Fernel; Joannis Fernelii; Joannes Fernelius (FR) in referring to gallbladder problems stated, “Obstruction, calculus, fullness & emptiness attack the gall bladder. The obstruction is either of the duct by which the bile is led away from the liver, or of that by which it is discharged from the gall bladder into the intestine…. In both [the] feces [are] whitish [and] the bile diffused with the blood throughout the whole body disfigures the skin with jaundice.” Here he gives the earliest description of endocarditis, notes the systole and diastole of the heart and is the first to describe peristalsis in the gastrointestinal tract. Among his anatomical observations was the earliest description of the spinal canal (515).

 

1555

Charles de l’Écluse; Carolus Clusius (FR-DE-NL), who was appointed to a professorship at Leyden, is considered the founder of scientific botany (1342).

 

Antonio Musa Brasavola; Antonius Musa Brasavolus (IT) wrote an epidemiological work on syphilis (223).

 

Smallpox (red plague) struck Brazil for the first time, killing vast numbers of natives (793).

 

Andreas Wesele Vesalius (NL), in the second edition of his De Humani Corporis Fabrica, noted a young girl to have a head larger than a man’s. The fluid was described as not being collected between the skull and the exterior membrane, but within the cavity of the brain itself. Nine pounds of water was removed from the ventricles at autopsy. Doubtless this was a case of hydrocephalus (1390).

John Friend (GB) gave one of the first accounts of hydrocephalus (544).

See, William Heberden, 1768.

John Cheyne (GB) described acute hydrocephalus (303).

 

1555-1562

Brazil was exposed to epidemic smallpox (red plague) (793).

1556

Jacques Dubois; Jacobus Sylvius (FR) wrote In Hippocratis et Galeni Physiologiae Partem Anatomicam Isagoge a Jacobo Sylvio [In the Physiology of Hippocrates and Galen, the Anatomical Part of Isagoge by James Sylvius], in which he gave names to many blood vessels and muscles; names we still use today (464).

 

Andre Thevet (FR), a Franciscan monk, was the first to bring tobacco from the Americas to Europe. He transplanted Nicotiana tabacum from Brazil to France and described tobacco as a creature comfort (10).

 

1557-1558

Influenza (grippe) is epidemic in Europe and England. ref

 

1557

Ippolito Salviani (IT) produced the first iconography of the fishes of the Mediterranean. They were printed from copper-engraved plates. Ninety-three fishes and other marine life are illustrated in the 81 plates with 18 species being new to science (1181).

 

Felix Platter (CH) was the first to carry out a public dissection of the human body in a Germanic country. He was the first physician to describe persistent thymus (persisting into adulthood and occasionally exhibiting hypertrophy) with thymic death and wrote excellent descriptions of myxedema and gallstones. He gave the first clinical description of cretinism (1085; 1088). Note: The diagnosis of thymic death is frequently made the dumping ground of unexplained sudden death. A large thymus is rather the rule than the exception in patients dying suddenly.

 

1559

Matteo Realdo Colombo (IT) wrote De Re Anatomica in which he placed the lens of the eye in its proper position, described the mediastinum, the pleura, and the peritoneum in a way superior to his predecessors and determined that the pulmonary vein is always full of blood contrary to the teaching of Galen (Galeni). He described the lesser circulation (pulmonary circulation) of blood through the lungs in detail (340; 350). See, Ibn Nafis, 1246.

 

c. 1560

Pierre Franco (FR) was an outstanding practitioner of lithotomy, amputations, treatment of hernia, cataracts, and harelip (540).

 

1561

Gabriele Falloppio; Gabriel Fallopius (IT) wrote Observationes Anatomicae in which he described the human inner ear (Chorda tympani, the semicircular canals), the trigeminal nerve (5th cranial nerve), the sphenoidal sinuses, the human ovaries, virginal hymen, clitoris, round ligaments, and the tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus; today these oviducts are called Fallopian tubes in his honor. He gave the first clear description of primary dentition, the follicle of the tooth bud, and the manner of growth and replacement of the primary by the secondary tooth, as well as the first denial of the belief that teeth and bones are derived from the same tissues. He was also the first to describe the three muscle coats of the urinary bladder. Falloppio introduced the modern scientific terms vagina, placenta (Gk. plakuos, a flat cake), cochlea, labyrinth, palate, velum palati, and described the seminal vesicles in the human male. His description of the Fallopian tube is as follows: "That slender and narrow seminal passage arises from the horn of the uterus very white and sinewy but after it has passed outward a little way it becomes gradually broader and curls like the tendrils of a vine until it comes near the end when the tendril-like curls spread out and it terminates in a very broad ending which appears membranous and fleshy on account of its reddish colour" (501; 503).

 

Luigi Anguillara (IT) authored Semplici Del Excellente and was hailed as the greatest botanist of his time (68).

 

1563

Felix Wurtz; Felix Wirtz; Felix Wirz, Felix Wuertz (CH-DE) wrote his Practica in which he criticized bloodletting, probing, cataplasms, plasters, and salves. He treated wounds with soothing applications, decried the employment of irritating solutions, and taught that wounds should heal by primary intention whenever possible. Long wounds, wounds of the face and of the abdomen should be sutured but not wounds in which there was much pus. The cautery should be used only for amputations and in arterial bleeding; otherwise compression is the method of choice. Wurtz was the first surgeon to describe amputation at the thigh (1487).

 

Bartolomeo Eustachi; Bartolomeo Eustacchio; Bartolomeo Eustachius (IT), in 1563, wrote A Little Treatise on the Teeth: the First Authoritative Book on Dentistry (493).

 

Garcia de Orta (PT) deals with a series of medicinal substances, many of them unknown or the subject of confusion and misinformation in Europe at this period. He was the first European to describe Asiatic tropical diseases, notably cholera; he performed an autopsy on a cholera victim, the first recorded autopsy in India (421).

 

Gabriele Falloppio; Gabriel Fallopius (IT) described his contraceptive sheath used for preventing transmission of syphilis. It was a medicated sheath covering the tip of the penis and under the foreskin, held in place by a pink ribbon so that it would appeal to women. In referring to his clinical trial, he says, "I tried the experiment [the use of condoms] on 1,100 men, and I call immortal God to witness that not one of them was infected" (502). The Earl of Condom (GB), at the request of Charles II, devised an oiled sheath made from sheep intestine as a contraceptive.

 

Thomas Gale (GB) wrote An Enchiridion of Chirurgerie [A Handbook of Surgery], the first complete work on surgery in the English language (555).

 

Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) struck London again in 1563, in what was probably its worst outbreak ever, killing an estimated quarter to a third of the population. Subsequent outbreaks occurred in 1578, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665, each time killing thousands. In terms of proportion of the total population destroyed, the 1563 and 1665 epidemics were the worst (793).

 

1564

Julio Cesare Aranzio; Giulio Cesare Aranzi; Julius Caesar Arantius (IT) described both the fetal foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus, but modestly claimed only to elaborate in detail on Galen's (Galeni’s) earlier descriptions. He thought these anatomical structures were supposed to nourish the heart and lungs with venous and arterial blood, respectively. He noted the post-natal closing of the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale (76).

 

Leonardo Botallo (IT) published the first description of hay fever and appears to have been the first to describe a persistent foramen ovale after birth, but without understanding its function in the fetal state. He called it vena arteriarum nutrix (201). Galen; Galenos; Claudii Galeni; Aelius Galenus; Claudius Galenus; Clarissimus Galen of Pergamon (modern Turkey) (GR-Roman) had also described the foramen ovale in the second century in his De Usu Partium (559).

 

Francesco Plazzoni (NL) was the first to delineate the uterus, the fetus, and the placenta in the various stages of development, and was the first to record a pelvic deformity. He also made the first valid pronouncement on pelvic contraction in the history of obstetrics, a clear description of its effect on labor (1092). The first edition was in 1564.

 

An epidemic of plague occured in Lyon, France (793).

 

1565

Simon de Vallambert (FR) noted that a child born of a mother who is without obvious venereal symptoms and shows this disease when it is a few weeks old will infect the healthiest nurse and yet this child is never known to infect its mother (428).

Abraham Colles (IE) rediscovered this relationship in 1837 when it became known as Colles’ law. He incorrectly concluded that the mother is resistant. He was ignorant of the fact that the mother already had the disease (337).

 

Geronimo Mercuriali; Girolamo Mercuriali; Girolamo Mercuriale; Mercurialis; Hieronymus Mercurialis (IT) wrote De Arte Gymnastica, the first book on sports medicine (954).

 

1566-1567

Typhus (camp fever) was epidemic in the army of Maximilian II in Hungary (793).

 

Plague appeared among British troops in Ireland. ref

 

1567

Marcello Donati describes epidemic smallpox (red plague) and measles at Mantua, Italy.

 

1568-1569

Severe plague is epidemic in Edinburgh. ref

 

c. 1570

Thomas Jordanus (AT) wrote on the epidemiology of purple or petechial fever (754).

 

1570

Plague is reported in Europe. ref

 

Matthias de L'Obel (Flemish-GB) and Petrus Pena () authored adversaria Nova, a botanical presentation emphasizing the philosophy of botany and the abstractness of systematization. Its natural taxonomy is what ranks it as a great book (412).

 

1573

Volcher Coiter; Volcherus Coeiter; Volcker Koyter (NL) made a series of observations of the chick’s day by day development in the incubated egg. He was the first to observe the blastoderm of the chick (333). Note: This work contains the earliest study of the growth of the skeleton as a whole in the human fetus, the first descriptions of the spinal ganglia, and musculus corrugator supercilii, and the first published study of chick embryo development based upon direct observation since the three-period description (after three, ten and twenty days of incubation) given by Aristotle in his Historia Animalium.

 

Constanzo Varolio (IT) describes what is obviously cerebrospinal fluid and publishes a new method of dissecting the brain whereby he separated the brain from the skull and began the dissection from the base. Varolio described many of the brain's structures for the first time including the pons or pons Varolii (442; 1385).

 

1574-1577

There is a pandemic of plague (793).

 

1575

Amboise Pare (FR) described aneurisms and lamented their incurable nature. He also described surgical treatment of emphysema arising from pleurisy (1051; 1052).

 

1576

Mexico's first epidemic of typhus (camp fever) killed many natives. This was another of the lethal diseases introduced by Europeans (793).

 

Paris and several other European cities suffered from outbreaks of diphtheria (793).

 

Guillaume de Bailout; William of Billion; Wilhelm Balconies (FR), following autopsy of a seven-year-old boy, described the false membrane covering the airway that characterizes diphtheria (901).

 

John Fothergill (GB) described diphtheria (532).

 

Typhus (camp fever).was epidemic in Oxford, England (793).

 

1578

Hieronymus Fabricius abs Aquapendente; Girolamo Fabrizio of Aquapendente; Jerome Fabricius of Acquapendente (IT) gave the first clear illustrations of the one-way valves in the veins of man in his book De Venarum Ostiolis (498). He had made the announcement at Padua in 1578-1579. See, Canano, 1541.

 

Guillaume de Baillou; William of Ballion; Wilhelm Ballonius (FR) described whooping cough (called quinte) in its first confirmed outbreak. The disease had probably existed prior to this time (392).

 

 Jean de Lery (FR) was a member of the French colony at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He published observations on the local fauna (415).

 

Whooping cough is epidemic in Paris, France (793).

 

1580-1584

Plague is present in London

 

1580-1582

An influenza (grippe) pandemic spreads from Europe to Asia to Africa (367).

 

1580

Geronimo Mercuriali; Girolamo Mercuriali; Girolamo Mercuriale Girolamo Mercurialis; Hieronymus Mercurialis (IT) formulated the concept of syncope (fainting) and demonstrated its connection with a slow pulse rate: "Ubi pulsus sit rarus semper expectanda est syncope. [Whenever the pulse is rare, always a syncope has to be expected]." He distinguished between cardiac and nervous syncope noting that cardiac syncope could be life threatening (265; 886; 955).

 

Julio Cesare Aranzio; Giulio Cesare Aranzi; Julius Caesar Arantius (IT) was the first to use a light source to visualize a cavity in the human body. To achieve this, he focused sunlight through a flask of water and projected it to visualize the nasal cavity (80).

 

Influenza (grippe) is epidemic in Italy and smallpox (red plague) is epidemic in Venezuela (793).

 

1583-1618

Diphtheria is epidemic in Spain. ref

 

c. 1583

Prospero Alpini (IT), while studying the date palm in Egypt, was the first person to realize that plants, like animals, can exist as male and female. He was the first European to describe the coffee plant, Coffea spp. (55). Linnaeus commemorated him with the genus Alpinia.

 

1583

Andrea Cesalpino; Andreas Caesalpinus (IT) authored De Plantis (Concerning Plants) which marked the beginning of systematic botany. It presents plants for the first time arranged according to what are believed to be their natural affinities with primary emphasis placed on similarities of fruit, and seed. His use of characters such as position of ovary within a flower and the number of locules in an ovary profoundly influenced the thinking of later botanists (292). Cesalpino is commemorated by the genus Caesalpinia.

 

Felix Platter (CH) proposed that the retina, rather than the crystalline lens, is the true visual receptor of the eye. The lens serves only to focus the light (1085).

 

George Bartisch (DE) wrote Ophthalmodouleia, the first systematic work on ocular disease and ophthalmic surgery (133).

 

1584-1588

Scotland experiences the plague. ref

 

1585

Salomon Alberti (DE) began public demonstrations of the venous valves in 1579 and was the first to provide illustrations of these structures (35).

 

Ambroise Paré (FR) explained how to surgically remove a cancer from the lip (1054).

 

Smallpox (red plague) is epidemic in Peru and plague is epidemic in Edinburgh (793).

1586

Arcangelo Piccolomini (IT) distinguished between cortex and white matter, described abdominal muscles, the termination of the acoustic nerve, the anastomoses of the fetal heart, and the differences between the male and female pelvis. He was the first anatomist after Salomon Alberti (DE) to describe the venous valves as a general phenomenon. Fabricius had announced their discovery at Padua in 1578-1579 (1076; 1079).

 

Marcello Donati (IT) was probably the first to record a case of gastric ulcer (457).

 

Exeter, England suffered an epidemic of typhus (camp fever) (793).

 

1587

Abraham Ortelius; Abraham Oertel; Abraham Wortels (BE-NL), a cartographer, suggested the possibility of continental drift (1024).

Bernard Brunhes (FR) showed that many rocks were magnetized antiparallel to the Earth's magnetic field (248).

Frank Bursley Taylor (US) developed the idea that the continents had once slid around. Taylor suggested that the crunching together of continents could have thrust up the world’s mountain chains (1325).

Alfred Lothar Wegener (DE) proposed that originally the continents had formed a single mass (Pangaea or All-Earth) surrounded by a continuous ocean (Panthalassa or All-Sea). This large granite mass broke into chunks that slowly separated, floating on a basalt ocean, and, over hundreds of millions of years, took up the pattern of the fragmented continents we now have. In this fashion Wegener undertook to explain the changing pattern of glaciations, for, of course, the relative positions of the poles with respect to the continents changed. He also used this hypothesis to explain patterns of species similarities; wherein related species were found in widely separated parts of the world, and so on. This represents an early expression of the concepts of continental drift and plate tectonics (1435-1438).

Arthur Holmes (GB) suggested a mechanism that could explain Alfred Lothar Wegener's theory of continental drift, the power of convection. Heat from radioactive decay of elements in the interior of the Earth drives convection currents in the Earth's mantle. These convection currents could force the continents toward or away from one another, creating new ocean floor and building mountain ranges (690; 691).

Motonori Matuyama (JP) showed that the Earth's magnetic field reversed in the mid-Quaternary, a reversal now known as the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal (939). Note: The period of reversed polarity, dating from 2.58 M to 0.78 M years ago, is now called the Matuyama reversed chron and the transition to normal polarity (like that of the present Earth's field) is the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal.

Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett (GB), in 1952, invented a device for measuring the very small amount of magnetic fields associated with magnetic minerals. Blackett's magnetometer and its successor instruments were used to gather data that converged in the 1960s with further evidence, leading to an explanation of the continents' past and present motions (188).

Marie Tharp (US) ,in 1952, painstakingly aligned sounding profiles from Atlantis, acquired during 1946–1952, and one profile from the Naval ship Stewart acquired during 1921. She created a total of approximately six profiles stretching west-to-east across the North Atlantic. From these profiles, she was able to examine the bathymetry of the northern sections of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Tharp identified an aligned, v-shaped structure running continuously through the axis of the ridge and believed that it may be a rift valley (868). Note: This was indirect evidence in support the Plate Techtonics Theory which was not popular at the time. Although Tharp was later recognized and credited for her work on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, it was Bruce Heezen (US) , her boss, who, at the time in 1956, put out and received credit for the discovery that was made.

Harry Hammond Hess (US) hypothesized that seafloor opens anew where continents move apart. In his model, the driving force is the constant upwelling of magma by thermal convection producing new mantle rock as it cools. Midocean ridges mark the line along which mantle up-flow diverges to flow horizontally away on either side. The upper surface of the advecting mantle flows is the seafloor. Continents floating in the mantle, go with the flow. Continents on either side of an oceanic ridge separate as the seafloor spreads between them (664-667).

Frederick J. Vine (GB) and Drummond H. Matthews (GB), using magnetic studies of the Atlantic Ocean floor, demonstrated conclusively that the seafloors are spreading in precisely the manner Hess had suggested and that the continents are also in motion (1394). Lawrence Whitaker Morley (CA) reached the same conclusions as Vine and Matthews but could not get his manuscript published. The 1963 theory of magnetic reversals on the ocean floor is sometimes referred to as the Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis.

Walter C. Pitman, III (US) and James R. Heirtzler (US) established that sea-floor spreading was indeed the process by which ocean floor is being formed at the crests of midocean ridges. They had measured the rates and directions of spreading in all the oceans (1082).

James R. Heirtzler (US), Geoffrey Owen Dickson (AU), Ellen M. Herron (US), Walter C. Pitman, III (US), and Xavier Le Pichon (FR) proposed that a geomagnetic polarity timescale (GPTS) can be constructed using oceanic magnetic anomaly record(s), assuming constant seafloor spreading rate(s), and interpolating between available radiometric ages (443; 444; 654; 655; 828; 1083). This method is most accurate in dating rocks 780,000 to 200,000 million years old.

Xavier Le Pichon (FR) established the parameters of motion between plates in all major oceans using the rates and directions of spreading at mid-ocean ridge crests, thus establishing the rigidity of plates. A worldwide pattern of relative motion between the six major plates was then computed. Finally, reconstructions of the evolution of the world oceans and continents at various stages were attempted (827).

 

Julio Cesare Aranzio; Giulio Cesare Aranzi; Julius Caesar Arantius (IT) discovered the musculus levator palpebrae superioris, the pedes hippocamp, the cerebellum cistern, the ammon horns, the fourth ventricle, the arterial duct (ductus arteriosus) as well as the ductus venosus (Arantii). Contrary to Vesalius he maintained the impermeability of the dividing walls of the heart. He also discovered that the blood of mother and fetus is kept separate during pregnancy. In 1564 he coined the term hippocampus to describe an intraventricular formation in the brain which had been previously outlined by Constanzio Varole in 1573 (76-82).

 

1588

Giambattista della Porta (IT) in his Phytognomonica was the first to observe seeds (spores) in agarics and truffles (437).

 

Jacob Theodor von Bergzabern; Tabernaemontanus (DE) described a variegation pattern in kernels of Zea mays. The details of the report make it clear that the phenotypes described followed a Mendelian segregation. This could well be the first report describing the action of what would later be called a controlling element or transposon (995; 1335). See, McClintock, 1947. He is commemorated in the pan-tropical genus of flowering shrubs and small trees Tabernaemontana.

 

1589

José de Acosta (ES) wrote De Natura Novi Orbis Libri duo (1589) and Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (1590), describing many previously unknown animals from the New World.

 

José de Acosta (ES), a Jesuit missionary to South America, was the first to suggest that the original Americans had somehow migrated from Siberia many thousands of years ago (388).

 

c. 1590

Li Shi-Zhen (CN) produced an extensive work on medical treatments using both plant and animal materials. It was based on his own medical and herbal experience and on data from earlier herbals, such as the well-known 11th-century herbal, Zheng Lei Ben Cao. Li's herbal describes 1,892 drugs (with 1,110 drawings), including 11,096 prescriptions, for treating hundreds of illnesses, ranging from the common cold to drunkenness and food poisoning. He mentions a method of variolation for immunization against smallpox (red plague) (1260).

 

Plague (Yersinia pestis) sweeps many European cities again (793).

 

1590

José de Acosta (ES) gives a vivid description of mountain sickness. "There is in Peru, a high mountaine which they call Pariacaca, and having heard speake of the alteration it bred, I went as well prepared as I could…. When I came to mount the degrees, as they call them, which is the top of this mountaine, I was suddenly surprized with so mortall and strange a payn, that I was ready to fall from the top to the ground…. I was surprised with such pangs of straining & casting, as I thought to cast up my heart too…. In the end I cast up blood, with the straining of my stomacke" (389). See, Too Kim, 50 B.C.E.

 

Thomas Harriot (GB) was a naturalist with the first attempted English colony in North America, on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. He describes the black bear, gray squirrel, hare, otter, opossum, raccoon, skunk, Virginia and mule deer, turkeys, horseshoe crab (Limulus), etc. (637).

 

1591

Smallpox (red plague) struck the Philippines for the first time, arriving on a Spanish ship from Mexico and spreading through the country with high mortality rates (793).

 

A pandemic of the plague occurred.

 

Prospero Alpini (IT), who went to Cairo with the Venetian consul Giorgio Emo in 1580 and remained with him in Cairo for three years, described the extraction of urinary calculi by the Aegyptian physicians without incision. The usual method of removing stones from the urinary bladder was by median or lateral incision through the perineum.

The technique consisted essentially in a very considerable dilatation of the urethra.

One of the two methods described by Alpini is in brief as follows: "One uses several bougies of different size made of an elastic cartilaginous material. First the bougie with the smallest diameter is introduced into the urethra until it has reached the collum vesicae. Then by blowing into the bougie, it is dilated as much as possible and a larger one is introduced and likewise blown to a maximum diameter: a third and eventually a fourth still larger one may be added in the same way. The patient is placed in a convenient position and by introducing a finger into his anus; the stone is pushed towards the collum vesicae and into the internal opening of the largest bougie. Then by releasing the compressed air, the bougies retract, and when removed carry the stone with them. If it is a soft stone, it is occasionally broken. Experts in this way could remove stones of even the size of an olive (54).

 

1592-1596

One of the earliest outbreaks of measles among Native Americans in North America struck the Seneca Indians in Central New York State, and caused hundreds or maybe thousands of deaths (793).

 

1592-1593

Plague is epidemic in London (793).

 

1592

Thaddaeus Dunus of Locarno (CH) gave the first clear description of the broad or fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothrium latum. He called it Lumbricus latus (471).

Edward Tyson (GB) presented to the Royal Society of London a 24-foot Lumbricus latus he removed from a patient (1367; 1368).

Thomas Spencer Cobbold (GB) introduced the genus Diphyllobothrium in 1858 (328).

Constantine Janicki (CH) and Felix Rosen (CH) identified the copepod Cyclops streinuus as the first intermediate host of D. latum in European waters. They were able to complete the life cycle of this parasite (737).

 

1593

Andrea Cesalpino (IT) correctly deduced the direction of blood flow as shown in his book Medical Questions, where he says, "This is a fact well known by experience to those who let blood; for they place the ligature on the near side of the place of incision, not on the far side, because the veins swell on the far side, not on the near side of the ligature. But exactly the contrary ought to happen if the movement of the blood and the spirits took place in the direction from the viscera to all parts of the body. Thus, there is a way of perpetual movement from vena cava, through the heart and lungs, into the aorta artery, as I have explained in my Peripatetic Questions" (291).

 

1594-1595

"O'er ladies' lips, who straight on kisses dream, Which oft of the angry Mab with blisters plagues..." William Shakespeare (1248). Shakespeare was likely talking about the characteristic lesions caused by Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), more commonly known as cold sores or fever blisters.

 

Richard Boulton (GB) introduced the names Herpes simplex, Herpes miliaris and Herpes exedens (205).

 

The first permanent anatomical theatre in Europe was built at Padua, Italy. It is still in existence today.

 

c. 1595

The first record of a metal band attached to a bird's leg was about 1595 when one of Henry IV's (GB) banded Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) was lost in pursuit of a bustard in France. It showed up 24 hours later in Malta, about 1350 miles away, averaging 56 miles an hour!

Duke Ferdinand placed a silver band on a Grey Heron about 1669: the bird was recovered by his grandson about 1728, indicating the heron lived at least 60 years.

In 1710, in Germany, a falconer captured a grey heron with several rings on one leg. The bander was unknown but one of the rings was apparently placed on the heron in Turkey, more than 1200 miles to the east.

John James Audubon (US) and Ernest Thompson Seton (CA) were pioneers although their method of marking birds was different from modern ringing. To determine if the same bird would return to his farm, Audubon tied silver threads onto the legs of young eastern phoebes (Sayornis phoebe) in 1803, while Seton marked snow buntings in Manitoba with ink in 1882 (355).

Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen (DK), in 1899, began placing aluminum rings on the legs of European teal (Anatidae crecca), pintail (Anas acuta), white storks (Ciconia ciconia), starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and several types of hawks. He inscribed the bands with his name and address in the hope they would be returned to him if found. His system of banding became the model for our current efforts (1106).

Paul Bartsch (US), a well-known conchologist whose hobby was the study of birds, began the first scientific system of banding in North America. He banded 23 Black-crowned Night-Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) at Washington, DC with bands inscribed "Return to Smithsonian Institution" (135).

 

1596-1597

Dysentery (bloody flux) is common in England. ref

 

1596-1602

Plague is epidemic in Spain (793).

 

1596

Gaspard Caspar Bauhin (CH), in a work which delt with over 6000 different plants, was the first to introduce some degree of order into the chaotic muddle of nomenclature and synonymy in the botanical sciences, classifying them in a manner that draws comparisons to the later binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus (140; 143).

 

Guido Guidi; Guiliano Guido; Videus; Vidianus; Vidius; Vidus (IT-FR) described the nerve of the pterygoid (Vidian nerve) and its artery (Vidian artery) (619).

1597

Gaspare Tagliacozzi (IT) wrote De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem, an outstanding classic in reconstructive or plastic surgery. He described operations for the restoration of lost noses, lips, and ears. While he did not originate these operations—Hindu surgeons in ancient India performed such operations— he and his family brought them to a high level of perfection (1319). "We bring back, refashion, and restore to wholeness the features which nature gave but chance destroyed, not that they may charm the eye but that they may be an advantage to the living soul, not as a mean artifice but as an alleviation of illness, not as becomes charlatans but as becomes good physicians and followers of the great Hippocrates. For although the original beauty of the face is indeed restored, yet this is only accidental, and the end for which the physician is working is that the features should fulfill their offices according to nature's decree" (592). Note: Branca de Branca (IT) may deserve credit for originating this technique in 1442.

Karl Ferdinand von Graefe (DE) revived then modified the Italian (Tagliacozzi) method of rhinoplasty and introduced the Indian method in Germany. He coined the word rhinoplasty and reported the first truly successful case of blepharoplasty, which was performed in 1809 (1404). See, Susruta c. 400.

Jonathan Mason Warren (US) performed the first operation for rhinoplasty in the United States (1431).

 

Plague is epidemic in Edinburgh (793).

 

1598

"There is a history in all men’s lives." William Shakespeare, Second Part of King Henry IV, act III, scene i (1249).

 

"And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe,

And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot;

And thereby hangs a tale." William Shakespeare, As You Like It, act II, scene vii (1250).

 

Carlo Ruini (IT) wrote Anatomica del Cavallo, Infermità et Suoi Remedii the first great book on the anatomy and diseases of the horse; a book said to rival Vesalius’s work in precision and beauty. This is more remarkable since Ruini was a lawyer (1177).

 

1599

Ulisse Aldrovandi (IT) began the publication of Ornithologiae, De Animalibus Insectis Libri Septem, De Piscibus, Serpentum, and De Quadropedibus Solidipedibus, large books containing descriptions and exceptional illustrations of various animals (39; 40; 42-44).

 

c. 1600

Members of the first Academia dei Lincei, a scientific society that included Galileo Galilei coined the word microscope (1152).

Giovanni Fabri (IT) is reported to be the first to have used the word microscope. It was in a letter to Federico Cesi (IT) in 1625 (604).

 

1600

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your philosophy [science]." - Hamlet (1.5. 211), Hamlet to Horatio(1166).

 

William Gilbert (GB), an Elizabethan physician and experimenter on electricity, wrote the first great scientific book by an Englishman. From his experiments he concluded that the earth behaves as an immense magnet. Gilbert also discussed the medicinal power of iron (582).

 

Giulio Cesare Casseri; Julius Cesare Casserius (IT) wrote De Vocis Auditusque Organis Historia Anatomica, considered by some to be the most beautiful book ever published on the ear and throat. The illustrations are in copper plate engraving and are thought to be by the German artist, Joseph Maurer. Casserius described the muscles of the ossicles of the ear, the musculocutaneous nerve and the larynx (279).

 

1600-1608

Plague is epidemic in Scotland (793).

1601

Carolus Clusius; Charles de L’Écluse; Carlus Clusius; Jules-Charles L'Écluse (FR-DE-NL) produced Rariorum Plantarum Historia containing the descriptions of many native and ornamental plants of Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, and Belgium. This book contained an index Fungorum Historia in which more than 100 fungi are described (324). Note: In Leiden he planned and established the later famed botanical garden. Clusius is credited with introducing the tulip—a native of Central Asia and Turkey— into the Netherlands and the potato from the Americas into Europe.

 

Giulio Cesare Casseri; Giulio Cesare Casserio; Julius Cesare Casserius (IT), was assistant to Girolamo Fabrizio (IT). Recognized for his skill as a dissectionist, anatomist, and lecturer he illustrated for the first time the urachus, the lateral umbilical ligaments, the inguinal fossa, the peritoneum (shown detached from the abdominal wall), mammillary bodies (nipples), and the tarsal gland of the eyelid (277).

1602

Ulisse Aldrovandi (IT) wrote De Animalibus Insectis (Of Insect Animals) (41).

 

1602

Plague is epidemic in Prussia (793).

1603

Hieronymous Fabricius ab Aquapendente; Girolamo Fabrizio of Aquapendente; Jerome Fabricius of Acquapendente (IT) was the first to explain and depict with thorough understanding the placenta and the fetal membranes of mammals. In the first examples of comparative embryology he compared the embryonic development of the chicken, man, rabbit, guinea-pig, mouse, dog, cat, sheep, pig, horse, ox, goat, deer, dog-fish, and the viper in his two books De Formatione Ovi et Pulli and De Formato Foetu, published in 1603. The work on the chicken contains the best description of the reproductive tract of the hen up to that time. Fabricius discovered the bursa now called bursa of Fabricius and was the first to establish with any degree of accuracy the role played by the ovary and oviduct in the formation of the hen's egg. He was the first to describe the germinal disc distinctly (497; 499). Fabricius was an outstanding surgeon who re-introduced tracheotomy and improved herniotomy.

 

Four young noblemen led by the Roman Prince Federico Cesi founded Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.

 

Plague is epidemic in London (793).

 

1604

Zaccharias Janssen; Sacharias Janssen; Zaccharias Jansen (NL), an optician and counterfeiter by trade, may have invented the compound microscope. He combined two convex lenses within a tube, thus constructing the forerunner of the compound microscope. His intention was to construct a telescope. Janssen has been falsely credited with the invention of the telescope (431; 640).

Johannes Kepler (DE), a mathematician and astronomer, invented a microscope with double convex lenses in 1611 (778). See, Pierre Borel, 1608.

Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel (NL) is credited as an inventor of the compound lens microscope with two convex lenses in c. 1620 (1381).

 

Johannes Kepler (DE) established the fundamental principles of the visual process that are still valid today. Kepler described for the first time the pupillary contraction that accompanies visual accommodation, and he corrected older statements about the size of the visual angle. He set forth for the first time, a correct account of how the light rays penetrate through the crystalline lens and reach the retina. Kepler also correctly postulated that the retina is the real organ of vision. On its surface, an inverted image of the contemplated object appears, point by point. Kepler explained the effect of glasses both in nearsightedness and presbyopia, depicting the directions that the rays of light followed through the lenses. He realized that the image of an object would remain out of focus until the rays could converge on the surface of the retina (777-779). Benedetto Castelli (IT) made the same observation in 1639 (282).

Christoph Scheiner (Swabian) confirmed Kepler’s thesis when he observed the sharp and inverted image of an object on the retina of an enucleated animal and human eye. Scheiner described the lateral emergence of the ocular nerves from the eyeball and the eye’s convergence. He also demonstrated that the refractive conditions in the eye varied through accommodation for distant or near vision (1200).

 

Gaspard Caspar Bauhin; Gaspard Casparus Bauhinus; Gaspard Kaspar Bauhin (CH) was an important botanist and anatomist. He discovered the ileo-cecal valve, named for him, and correctly explained its function of preventing the intestinal contents from coming back from the colon to the small intestine (141; 142; 144).

 

1604-1605

Plague is epidemic in Ireland (793).

 

c. 1605

Francis Bacon, a philosopher and Lord Chancellor of England, popularized the scientific method and thus lead a scientific revolution. One should begin with data, not faith, and then propose a testable hypothesis to explain those facts. This method of reasoning from the particulars to the general is known as induction. He emphasized the importance of experimentation as a way of testing ideas. Bacon also warned that to achieve accurate thinking we must guard against belief systems (Idols) common in our culture. He characterized the idols as: The Idol of the Tribe (community beliefs), The Cave (individual beliefs), The Marketplace (semantic communication problems), and The Theatre (deduction from believed but unproven premises) (109-111).

Using his powerful inductive powers Bacon arrived at an explanation of the nature of heat. For his time this was a remarkable feat of reasoning since there was not enough data available during Bacon’s time to allow him to reach such a conclusion. Here we have the combination of a remarkable intellect using logic and a good guess to arrive at the correct answer; I include it here.

“From instances taken collectively, as well as singly, the nature whose limit is heat appears to be motion. This is chiefly exhibited in flame, which is in constant motion, and in warm or boiling liquids, which are likewise in constant motion. It is also show in the excitement or increase of heat by motion and by bellows and draughts… It is also shown by the extinction of fire and heat upon any strong pressure, which restrains and puts a stop to motion… (thus is with tender, or the burning stuff of a candle or lamp, or even hot charcoal cinders, for when they are squeezed with snuffers, or the foot, and the like, the effect of the fire instantly ceases) … It is further shown by this circumstance, namely, that every substance is destroyed, or at least materially changed, by strong and powerful heat: whence it is clear that tumult and confusion are occasioned by heat, together with a violent motion in the internal parts of bodies, and this gradually tends to their dissolution… It must not be thought that heat generates motion, or motion heat, (though in some respects this is true) but that the very essence of heat… is motion and nothing else” (111).

 

Adriaan van de Spiegel; Adriaan van de Spigelius (NL) published the first instructions on making dried herbarium specimens (1376). Spigelia marilandica a plant of the family Loganiacae was named in his honor.

 

Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente; Girolamo Fabrizio of Aquapendente; Jerome Fabricius of Acquapendente (IT) is credited with describing situs inversus viscerum [inverted position of the viscera]in humans. The internal organs are on the opposite side from usual (319).

Marco Aurelio Severino (IT), in 1643, described dextrocardia, in which the heart is located on the right side of the thorax (319; 1243).

Matthew Baillie (GB) gave the first description of transposition of the great arteries (319). Other terms associated with this syndrome are situs inversus totalis, situs inversus with dextrocardia, situs inversus with levocardia, mirror image of situs solitus, mirror-image organs, situs solitus, situs ambiguous, Kartagener syndrome, Kartagener's syndrome.

 

1607

"CHARMAIN

Is this the man? Is’t you, sir, that knows things?

SOOTHSAYER

In nature’s infinite book of secrecy, a little I can read." William Shakespeare. Antony and Cleopatra, act I, scene ii (1166).

 

John Harington (GB), wit, courtier, master of horse, poet, translator of the School of Salerne (Salerno), and godson of Queen Elizabeth I was the inventor of the water closet (902).

 

John Harington (GB) translated from Italian to English verse Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum [Health Regimen of the School of Salernum], a medieval collection of health tips. The translation was published in 1607 in London (635).

 

Flax, especially prized during the time of the American Revolution, was a staple of life throughout the 18th century and later. The first American sailing ships–Discovery, Susan Constant, and Godspeed–that cruised up the James River in Virginia in 1607, as well as the Mayflower in Massachusetts, and, indeed, vessels from all over the world in past centuries, had elaborate sails made from the plant known as flax, Linum usitatissumum. The process of making linen materials, such as sails, from the flax plant depends upon two bacteria, Clostridium felsineum and Clostridium pectionvorum. Early American shipbuilders would have been hard pressed to find an acceptable sail material if there had not been microbial activity for the proper flax processing. The fibers of the flax plant were also employed to make blankets, handkerchiefs, paper, and clothing. In very moist environments bacteria would digest away much of the pectin thereby loosening the fibers of flax, which were then peeled away and spun into linen or used in other products.

 

John Smith (GB), head of the Jamestown colony, wrote A Map of Virginia in which he describes the physical features of the country, its climate, plants and animals, and inhabitants. He describes the raccoon, muskrat, flying squirrel, as well as a score of animals, all well identifiable (1268).

 

1608

"Pursue him to his house, and pluck him thence;

Lest his infection, being of catching nature,

Spread further." William Shakespeare. Coriolanus, act III, scene i (1166).

 

Hans Lippershay; Hans Lipperhey (NL), on October 2, 1608, applied to Count Maurice of Nassau, Holland, for a patent on a device to make distant objects seem clear (a telescope) (968).

Jacob Metiús (NL) applied for a patent only weeks after Lippershay. Albert van Helden (NL) credits Metiús with the invention of the telescope (1380).

Pierre Borel (FR) cites Sacharias Janssen (Zacharias Janssen) as the first inventor of the telescope (1590) and Hans Lippershay as its second inventor (199).

 

1609

Garcilasso de la Vega (ES-PE) in his Comentarios Reales de los Incas [Royal Commentaries of Peru] presents a wonderful contribution to the history of pre-Columbian America. The fauna catalogued by him includes nearly fifty species; the flora, including tobacco, is discussed at length. This work contains descriptions of the condor, ocelots, puma, viscacha, tapir, rhea, skunk, llama, paca,huanaco, and vicuña (413).

 

Felix Platter (CH) was the first to recognize Diphyllobothrium (fish tape worm) as being distinct from Taenia. He also provided the first descriptions of the disease (1086).

Charles Bonnet (CH) was the first to accurately describe the proglottids of Diphyllobothrium, but, unfortunately, the worm he illustrated had a Taenia scolex, a mistake he remedied in 1777 (197; 198).

Peter Christian Abildgaard (DK) observed that the intestine of sticklebacks often contained worms that resembled the tapeworms found in fish-eating birds. This represents the first clue that some parasites pass different parts of their life cycle in different hosts (16).

Pierre-Joseph van Bénéden (BE) was able to show through his studies of the digestive tracts of many fishes that organisms known, as cysticerci were larvae of intestinal worms then called taenia (adult tapeworms). His work covered a wide range of parasites in diverse animals (1375).

Maximillian Gustav Christian Carl Braun (DE) realized that the unsegmented tapeworms common in pike and other fish are the larval stages of Diphyllobothrium latum and succeeded in infecting dogs with these plerocercoids; in 1882 he achieved similar results in humans (224).

Constantine Janicki (PL) and Felix Rosen (PL) incriminated copepods in the Diphyllobothrium life cycle and showed that they feed on the eggs of the tapeworm and are then eaten by fish, which, in their turn, are eaten by humans (738).

 

Jacques Guillemeau (FR) is credited with originating the classical method of assisted breech delivery. The after-coming head is delivered with the child resting on the physician’s forearm: Straddling the baby over the right arm, the index finger of that hand is introduced into the mouth of the child and applied over the maxilla: two fingers of the other hand are then hooked over the neck, grasping the shoulders. Downward traction is made until the occiput appears under the symphysis pubis. The body of the child is then raised up toward the mother’s abdomen and the mouth, nose, brow, and occiput are successively brought over the perineum. This maneuver was of great importance before the forceps and Caesarean section. It is referred to by many names including the Mauriceau-Levret manipulation (621). Note: Guillemeau was also the first to employ podalic (feet-first) delivery in placenta praevia.

 

1610-1613

Smallpox (red plague) is reported in Scotland and England. ref

 

1610-1611

Plague is epidemic in Basel, Switzerland .(793)

1611

"A devil upon whose nature nurture will never work" William Shakespeare, in The Tempest, Act IV, Scene 1 where Prospero describes Caliban(1166). Note: The use of 'nature' and 'nurture' to distinguish inborn differences from differences due to upbringing.

 

Caspar Bartholin (BK) was the first to describe the workings of the olfactory nerve (132).

 

Mateo Alemán (ES), in 1611, may have written the first true description of amoebiasis when he described the case of Fray García Guerra, Archbishop of Mexico and Viceroy of the New Spain. The patient developed diarrhea (flux) followed a few days later by hepatic suppuration (1393).

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (NL), born Thonis Philipszoon, in his 34th letter to the Royal Society of London, dated 4 November 1861 described examining human feces and discovering what were surely spirochetes. He also described Giardia (Jee-ardia) from his own feces and records symptoms of giardiasis (1222).

Johann Künstler (DE) named a parasite of tadpoles Giardia agilis, after the French zoologist Alfred Mathieu Giard (808).

Vilém Dusan Lambl (CZ) identified the parasite responsible for amoebiac dysentery, naming it Cercomonas intestinalis (815; 1406).

William Thomas Councilman (US) and Henri Amadée Lafleur (US) clearly distinguished between bacillary and amoebic dysenteries (356).

Leslie L. Lumsden (US), Charles Wardell Stiles (US), and Allen W. Freeman (US) renamed it Giardia lamblia, in honor of Alfred Mathieu Giard (FR) and Vilém Dusan Lambl (CZ) (652; 887). However, Giardia intestinalis is considered by many to be the correct name for this protozoan.

Harold B. Fantham (GB) and Annie Porter (GB) found that during WW I soldiers with diarrhea (flux) passed Giardia cysts, which could cause similar symptoms when administered to laboratory animals (504).

Clifford Dobell (GB) suggested that Giardia is a pathogen (451).

Reginald Miller (GB) conclusively showed that some children infected with Giardia did suffer from malabsorption whereas others acted as unaffected carriers (962).

Charles Wardell Stiles (US) began to suspect that there was a causal relationship between the presence of Giardia and diarrhea (flux) (1303).

Robert C. Rendtorff (US) produced unambiguous evidence linking the Giardia parasite with diarrhea (1140).

 

Guillaume de Baillou; William of Ballion; Wilhelm Ballonius (FR), in 1611, provided one of the best early descriptions of rheumatism as arthritis (390).

Guillaume de Baillou; William of Ballion; Wilhelm Ballonius (FR) gave a clinical description of rheumatoid arthritis in adults and coined the word rheumatism to describe clinical manifestations of muscular pain and acute rheumatic fever (391).

Augustin Jacob Landré-Beauvais (FR), in 1800, was the first to clearly describe rheumatoid arthritis, calling it goutte asthénique primitive (primary asthenic gout) (816; 817).

Alfred Baring Garrod (GB), in 1858, coined the phrase rheumatoid arthritis (568).

 

1612

Norman Moore (GB), based on his studies of the autopsy on Henry Prince of Wales, oldest son of King James I of England, alleged that the prince had died at 18 years of age from typhoid fever (972). Note: This would be the earliest English case of typhoid fever.

 

1613

This year was known in Spain as “El Año de los Garotillos” (“strangulations”) for its epidemic of diphtheria (952).

 

1614

Santorio Santorio; Santorio Santorii; Sanctorius of Padua (IT) was the first to modify the thermometer (air thermometer invented by Galileo) into a clinical instrument to measure human body temperature. He devised a pulse clock using a pendulum to make the first quantitative measurements of pulse rate. By careful weighing of the human body he was the first to prove that humans loose weight by the evaporation of perspiration off their bodies (1186-1188; 1262).

 

Felix Platter (CH) provided the first account of a meningioma: "There was discovered on [the corpus callosum] the brain a remarkable round fleshy tumor like an acorn. It was hard and full of holes and was as large as a medium-sized apple. It was covered with its own membrane and was entwined with veins…. We perceived that this ball by compressing the brain and its ducts with its mass and by flooding them, had been the occasion of the lethargy and listlessness and finally of death" (1087).

 

1615

"It is clear from a churchman who has been elevated to a very eminent position that the Holy Spirit’s intention is to teach us how to go to Heaven, and not how the heavens go." Galileo Galilei (IT). This statement is contained in a Letter to Madame Christine of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, in 1615 (564). It is commonly held that Cesare Baronio (Cardinal Caesar Baronius) is the person from whom Galileo directly heard these words.

 

Giulio Cesare Vanini (IT) published two books, Amphitheatrum Aeternae Providentiae Divino-magicum. Christiano-physicum, nec non Astrologo-Catholicum. Aversus Veteres Philosophos and De admirandis Naturae Reginae Deaeque Mortalium Arcanis. It was for these two books, especially the second, that he was condemned and forced to flee Paris, and for opinions like those in the second that he was then executed in 1619. Based on these works Vanini is one of the first who began to treat nature as a machine governed by laws (1383; 1384).

 

1616

Fabius Columna; Fabio Colonna (IT) authored Ecphrasis in which he described, drew, and systematically arranged 210 species of plants (341).

 

c. 1617-1619

A smallpox (red plague) outbreak killed 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Indians, probably introduced from fishing boats that visited the coast before there was a permanent English settlement there. The few remaining natives were weakened and were unable to resist the landing of the Mayflower settlers at Plymouth in 1620 (793).

 

1617

John Woodall (GB), first surgeon-general to the East India Company, anticipated modern knowledge of the properties of vitamin C in regard to scurvy, a condition due to vitamin C deficiency and the scourge of sailors for generations. At sea, he states that experience shows that "the Lemmons, Limes, Tamarinds, Oranges, and other choice of good helps in the Indies... do farre exceed any that can be carried tither from England" (1482).

Johann Georg Heinrich Kramer (AT-HU), in 1720 and 1737, observed a scurvy-fruit/vegetables link (correlation). Soldiers who ate fresh fruit and vegetables generally did not get scurvy; those who did not, generally speaking, got it (862).

James Lind (GB) while in medical school at Edinburgh treated scurvy-ridden sailors with various diets and discovered that citrus fruits cured the disease (862; 863).

In 1795, lime and lemon juice were introduced into the British navy rations to control scurvy (249).

Theobald Smith (US) was the first to experimentally induce scurvy in animals (guinea pigs). He did so accidentally while studying bacterial infections of swine and apparently did not associate the symptoms with scurvy (1271).

Axel Holst (NO) and Theodor Fröhlich (NO) made a thorough and careful study of diet as a factor in inducing scurvy in guinea pigs. They found that supplements of fruits, fresh vegetables, or their juices to a diet of grain protected the animals against scurvy but if these antiscorbutic foods were dried or heated at 100°C for 30 minutes to an hour they lost their effectiveness. They also determined that while dried oats, barley (Hordeum vulgare), peas, beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), or lentils gave no protection they acquired protective powers when allowed to germinate before consumption (692; 693).

John H. Crandon (US), Charles C. Lund (US), and David Bruce Dill (US) experimentally induced scurvy in a human. The results laid the groundwork for our understanding of the biochemical and histologic changes in human scurvy (360). Stark (GB) had attempted to induce the disease in himself at an earlier date but unfortunately died of secondary complications (462).

 

1618-1648

The period of the Thirty Years War in Germany was marked by repeated epidemics, including typhus (camp fever), plague (Yersinia pestis), scurvy, and dysentery (bloody flux) that spread to other European countries (793).

 

1618

Italy was swept by outbreaks of diphtheria (793).

 

1619

Fabrizio Bartoletti; Fabrizio Bertoletti; Fabrizio Bartholet; Fabrizio Barthold (IT) described the sugar of milk (lactose) (134; 1350).

 

Rembert Dodoens; Robert Dodonäeus (BE) in referring to foxglove wrote, "for those who have water in the belly…it draws off the watery fluid, purifies the choleric fluid, and opens the obstruction" (453).

William Withering (GB) wrote An Account of the Foxglove and Some of its Medical Uses in which he recounted obtaining the recipe for a home remedy for dropsy (edema) from old women in Shropshire and realizing that Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) was the active ingredient. In the book, he reports on a decade of observations and experience with digitalis purpurea on numerous dropsy patients (1472; 1473). Digitalis from Foxglove remains a very important drug in the treatment of cardiac disease. L’Heritier (FR) honored him with the plant genus Witheringia.

John Ferriar (GB) wrote in detail about the diuretic effects of digitalis (519).

Augustine-Eugene Hormolle (FR) successfully isolated digitalin, a digitalis glycoside (699).

Claude-adolphe Nativelle (FR) isolated from Digitalis lanata (foxglove) a crystallized version of digitalis and named it digitaline (digitalin with digitoxin) (992).

Johann Ernst Oswald Schmiedeberg (RU-DE) arrived at the conclusion that Nativelle’s preparations were composed mainly of the following principles which he named: Digitonin, digitoxin, digitalin, and digitalein. The first is an inactive glucoside, while the three others have the property of acting upon the heart, digitoxin possessing this power in a most pronounced degree (1208).

James MacKenzie (GB) and Thomas Lewis (GB) discovered the role of digitoxin in treating supraventricular arrhythmias when they realized that it caused a reduction in the transmission of electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles (857; 897; 950).

Sydney Smith (GB) isolated the active glycoside named digoxin (Lanoxin) from the Balkan or woolly foxglove Digitalis lanata (1270).

Amar K. Sen (US) and Robert L. Post (US) found that the cardiac glycosides like digoxin inhibit the ATP-dependent sodium/potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) in the cell membrane of the cardiac myocyte. This inhibition increases the availability of intracellular calcium to contractile proteins in myocardial cells, with modest positive inotropic effect. Low dose digoxin may be of benefit in chronic heart failure by reducing symptoms and improving quality of life and exercise tolerance (1230).

 

Daniel Sennert (DE), in 1619, first described rubella, which means “little red” due to the rash that is a symptom. He called it röteln (1235).

Friedrich Hoffmann (DE) provided the first clinical description of rubella (686; 687).

William George de Maton (GB) recognized rubella (German measles) when he described, "a rash liable to be mistaken for scarlatina." He suggested that rubella be recognized as a distinct clinical entity (418).

Henry Veale (GB) coined the name rubella, meaning little red, for the clinical syndrome associated with a maculopapular rash of children and young adults in India (1387). Note: Rubella is frequently called "German measles" and is the third of six viral exanthems of childhood, with measles and scarlet fever being the first and second.

Alfred Fabian Hess (US) provided experimental evidence suggesting that a virus causes rubella (663).

V.Y. Hiro (JP) and Sadataka Tasaka (JP) confirmed the viral origin of rubella by passing the disease to nonimmune children using filtered nasal washings (680). Note: the only rubivirus

Norman McAlister Gregg (AU) discovered that in humans the occurrence of rubella in the early stages of pregnancy has profound teratogenic effects on the fetus in utero and under these conditions can produce a variety of congenital malformations (609; 610).

Charles Swan (AU) and Alfred L. Tostevin (AU), authorized by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, confirmed Gregg’s findings in 1946 (1315).

Paul D. Parkman (US), Edward L. Buescher (US), Malcolm S. Artenstein (US), Thomas Huckle Weller (US), Franklin A. Neva (US), John Louis Sever (US), Gilbert M. Schiff (US), and RenBe G. Traub (US) successfully isolated rubella (German measles) virus from army recruits (1057; 1242; 1442).

In 1969 a live attenuated rubella vaccine was licensed, then in the early 1970s, a triple vaccine containing attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) viruses was introduced (98; 648).

 

c. 1620

Marco Aurelio Severino (IT) developed treatments for abscesses and was performing resections of the ribs (1244).

 

1620

Deacon Dr. Samuel Fuller (GB-US), who arrived on the Mayflower, was the first non-native person in North America to work as a physician. There is no record of his medical training (902).

 

1621

Lazare Rivière; Lazarus Riverius; Lazari Riverii (FR) wrote a textbook in which he described impairments on consciousness. He was the first to note aortic stenosis (1646) (1149).

 

1622

Joachim Jungius (DE) founded the first nature-searching society, Societas Ereunetica sive Zetetica, at Rostock, Germany (345).

 

1623-1625

Purpuric fever (childbed fever) was common in England. The specific cause of this disease was then unknown.

 

1623

"No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; …. any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and therefore never send to know for whom the bells toll; it tolls for thee."John Donne (GB) (458)

 

"[The universe] cannot be read until we have learnt the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word." Galileo Galilei (IT) (563).

 

Aleixo de Abreu (PT) wrote the first text on tropical medicine. In it he describes, among other things, scurvy, yellow fever, the Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis), and liver involvement in his amoebiasis (387).

Colin Chisholm (GB), in 1795, may have been the first to observe the mode of transmission of the Guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, which he found in the water supply on the island of Granada and which differed from any animalcule hitherto described. He advanced the theory that the disease was carried from Africa to the Americas by a slave ship, the Hankey (306).

Karl Asmund Rudolphi (SE-DE), in 1819, discovered adult female Dracunculus medinensis worms containing larvae (1169).

Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko (RU), in 1869, elaborated the whole life cycle of Dracunculus medinensis, (Guinea worm or Medina worm) the parasite of dracontiasis, including the stages in the crustacean intermediate host (506; 507).

Robert Thompson Leiper (GB), in 1907, determined the complete life cycle of Dracunculus (the Guinea worm) (848).

Dyneshvar Atmaran Turkhud (IN), in 1914, succeeded in infecting human volunteers with Dracunculus medinensis by using infected cyclops (1364).

 

1625-1640

Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) spread through France. Probably the worst single outbreak was in Lyon in 1628-1629 (793).

 

1625

Federico Cesi (IT) presented some of the first images generated through the microscope. They are microscopic observations of bees carried out by members of the Accademia dei Lincei (293).

Aulus Persius Flaccus (IT), Dichter Roimisches Reich (IT), Francesco Stelluti (IT), and Naturforscher (IT), in 1630, wrote the first book to contain illustrations of objects viewed through the microscope. Stelluti was a friend of Galileo and founding member of the Accademia dei Lincei (525).

 

Giovanni Battista Cortesi; Cortesius of Messina (IT) recorded the remarkable case of the Warden of St. Francis, who, suffered from a severe inflammation of the throat, and complained of a foul breath. To make sure that he was not merely imagining the odor, he asked a friend to smell the exhalations from his mouth. Shortly thereafter the friend came down with the illness and died of suffocation on the fourth day. “From this instance,” wrote Cortesius, “I have come to the conclusion that the disease is more or less contagious” (353). Note: There is good reason to believe that the Warden had diphtheria.

 

Native Canadian Indians became fearful of French Jesuits because they became convinced that the Jesuits were associated with smallpox (red plague) (591).

 

London experienced a high mortality from the plague (793).

 

1627

Gasparo Aselli; Gasparo Asellio (IT), while examining the mesentery of a dissected dog, discovered the mesenteric chyle vessels (lacteals)—he called them venae albae et lacteae ("white and lacteal veins")— but did not understand their significance in the circulatory system (94; 531). Note: The discovery took place in 1622. See, Olof Rudbeck, 1653. Herophilus of Alexandria; Herophilos of Chalcedon; Herofilos of Chalkedon (GR) and Erasistratos (GR) are also credited with the discovery of the lacteals in c. 280 B.C.E. (1190).

 

Adriaan van de Spiegel; Adrianus Spigelius (BE-IT), in his De Humani Corporis Fabrica, described the caudate lobe of the liver known today as the Spiegelian lobe (1377).

 

Giulio Cesare Casseri; Giulio Cesare Casserio; Julius Cesare Casserius (IT), described the circle of arteries at the base of the brain which would later be called the Circle of Willis (circulus arteriosus cerebri) (278).

Johann Vesling; Johann Wesling; Johannes Veslingus (DE-IT) from Padua, gave descriptions or illustrations of the circle (470; 1391).

Johann Jakob Wepfer (CH) has priority for the description but not the illustration of the Circle in his book on apoplexy of 1658 (1446).

Thomas Willis (GB) published the first complete description, illustration, and understanding of the function of the circle, and more importantly, he was able to relate the anatomy to the clinical effects of vascular disease. The illustrations are probably the work of Christopher Wren (1462). Note: Although not listed as authors, Ralph Bathurst,(GB), Richard Lower (GB), Thomas Millington (GB), and Christopher Wren (GB) are known to have been contributors. “ . . .We have already shewn, that these Vessels are variously and very much ingrafted or inoculated among themselves, not only the Arteries with the Veins, but what is more rare and singular, Arteries with Arteries; to wit, the Carotidick Arteries of one side, in many, are united with the Carotides of the other side; besides the Vertebrals of either side among themselves, and are also inoculated into the posterior branches of the Carotides before united. The joynings together of the Carotides, in most living Creatures, are made about the Basis of the Skull under the Dura Mater...”(1461).

 

1628-1885

Smallpox (red plague) is epidemic in London.

 

1628

"Search out and study the secrets of Nature by way of experiment." William Harvey (GB) (641)

 

“For a long time, I turned over in my mind such questions as, how much blood is transmitted, and how short a time does its passage take. Not deeming it possible for the digested food mass to furnish such an abundance of blood, without totally draining the veins or rupturing the arteries, unless it somehow got back to the veins from the arteries and returned to the right ventricle of the heart, I began to think there was a sort of motion as in a circle. This I afterwards found true.” William Harvey (GB) (641) Harvey never observed capillaries although he tried; this would come in 1688.

 

"Blood passes through the lungs and heart by the action of the [auricles and] ventricles, and is sent for distribution to all parts of the body, where it makes its way into the veins and pores of the flesh, and then flows by the veins from the circumference on every side to the centre, from the lesser to the greater veins, and is by them finally discharged into the vena cava and right auricle of the heart…in such a quantity…as cannot…be supplied by the ingesta…. It is necessary to conclude that the blood…is impelled in a circle…in a state of ceaseless motion…and that is the sole…end of the motion and contraction of the heart." William Harvey (GB) (641).

 

"We, however, maintain (and shall take care to show that it is so), that all animals whatsoever, even the viviparous, and man himself not excepted, are produced from ova; that the first conception, from which the foetus proceeds in all, is an ovum of one description or another, as well as the seeds of all kinds of plants. . . . The history of the egg is therefore of the widest scope, inasmuch as it illustrates generation of every description. We shall, therefore, begin by showing where, whence, and how eggs are produced; and then inquire by what mean and order and successive steps the foetus or chick is formed and perfected in and from the egg." William Harvey (GB) (642). Note: Although Harvey is usually considered the author of the phrase “omne vivum ex ovo,” this phrase has not been found in his writings.

 

William Harvey (GB) through actual dissection, emphasized that the valves separating the two upper chambers of the heart from the two lower chambers of the heart are one-way valves; blood can go from auricle to ventricle but not vice versa.

By tying off selected arteries and veins he proved that blood flows away from the heart in arteries and toward the heart in veins. He calculated that every hour the heart pumped out a quantity of blood that is three times the weight of a man. It was inconceivable that blood could be formed and broken down at this rate—as the ancients thought. The inescapable conclusion was that blood circulates from heart to arteries to veins and back to the heart (641; 643). He guessed that extremely fine vessels must connect arteries to veins (capillaries), but these were too small for him to see without a microscope. See, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (NL), 1688.

"It was because of Harvey, and his experiments, that people came to realize that, in fact, it was the blood which played the prime role in physiology. This change in perspective created modern medicine. Without it we would have no understanding of respiration, gland secretion (as with hormones) or chemical changes in tissues" (1434).

 

William Harvey (GB) was most probably the first to record atrial fibrillation in humans when he noted, "…but I have noticed that after the heart proper, and even the right auricle were ceasing to beat and appeared on the point of death, an obscure movement undulation or palpitation had clearly continued in the right auricular blood itself for as long as the blood was perceptibly imbued with warmth and spirit (641).

 

1629-1631

Plague is epidemic in London. ref

 

Plague is epidemic in Italy (793).

 

1630-1633

Plague is epidemic in Florence, Italy (793).

 

1629

Jakob de Bondt; Jacobus Bontius (NL) went to Java and in the four short years before his death sent back a wealth of information about the East Indies. His posthumous works include the first description of beri-beri in European medical literature, and descriptions of animals and plants unknown in Europe.

He relates, "The inhabitants of the East Indies are much afflicted with a troublesome disorder which they call the Beriberii (a word signifying a sheep). The disease has, probably, received this denomination on account that those who are seized with it, exhibit a tottering of the knees, and a peculiar manner of walking which resembles to a fancy the gait of that animal" (395; 396). This book was published many years after the author’s death.

 

1630

Jean Rey (FR) was the first to prove that metals increase in weight on calcination (oxidation). He attributed these gains in weight to the union of metals with the air (1142; 1143).

Rey also gave the thermometer its modern form, though in a crude state. He called it a thermoscope (1144).

 

Daniel Sennert (DE) was the first to give a description of the scarlet fever. He was the first to mention the scarlatinal desquamation, the early arthritis, and post-scarlatinal dropsy, but did not mention the sore throat (1236).

Thomas Sydenham (GB) would later give a more detailed and accurate description of the scarlet fever. See, Sydenham, 1769.

 

1633

John Gerard (GB), Thomas Johnson (GB), Robert Priest (GB), Robert Davyes (GB), and Rembert Dodoens (BE) published Gerard's Herball or General Historie of Plants. Gerard had by this time became caretaker of the physic garden (medical plants of the College of Physicians of London) (574).

 

c. 1633

Smallpox (red plague) epidemic hit Massachusetts, affecting settlers and Native Americans; among the casualties were 20 settlers from the Mayflower, including their only physician (793; 952).

 

c. 1634

Johann Rudolph Glauber (DE-NL) reported heating wood in a closed retort and collecting the volatile products as distillate. The products included acetic acid, acetone, and wood alcohol (methanol) (590).

 

1634-1640

Measles and influenza (grippe) were epidemic in Quebec and Eastern Canada, hitting the Huron Indians especially hard (793).

1634

The Musaeum Tradescantianum was the first museum open to the public to be established in England. Located in Vauxhall in south London, it comprised a collection of curiosities, assembled by John Tradescant the elder (GB) and his son in a building called The Ark, and a botanical collection in the grounds of the building.

Tradescant divided the exhibits into natural objects (naturalia) and manmade objects (artificialia). The first account of the collection, by Peter Mundy, is from 1634. At this time the collection was already quite large. After the death of the elder Tradescant and his wife, the collection passed into the hands of the wealthy collector Elias Ashmole (GB) who in 1691 gave it to Oxford University as the nucleus of the newly founded Ashmolean Museum, the world's first university museum.

 

William Wood (GB) wrote New England Prospect (1634) in which he describes New England's fauna (1481).

 

Dutch traders introduced a catastrophic smallpox (red plague) epidemic into Connecticut. It killed 95% of the Indians along the Connecticut River, and spread north into Canada. The English settlers were mostly immune, having had the disease as children themselves, but attributed their escape, and the Indians' death, to God's will. The elimination of the natives in the Connecticut valley opened that area to settlement (793).

John Winthrop (GB), governor of the colony of Massachusetts, wrote that “the natives, they are neere all dead of the small Poxe, so as the Lord hathe cleared our title to what we possess.” (591)

 

1636

Plague is epidemic in London .(793)

In 1636, Harvard University, the oldest university in the United States of America, was founded. The Medical Institution of Harvard University was added, in 1783, with three faculty members: Dr. John Warren (US), Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse (US), and Dr. Aaron Dexter (US) (902).

 

English country names and code elements taken from the International Organization for Standardization:

DZ = Algeria; US = America; AR = Argentina; AU = Australia; AT = Austria; AT/HU = Austro/Hungary; BA = Bosnia and Herzegovina; BE = Belgium; BR = Brazil; GB = Great Britain; BG = Bulgaria; CM = Cameroon; CA = Canada; TD = Chad; CL = Chile; CN = China; CO = Colombia; CR = Costa Rica; HR = Croatia; CU = Cuba; CY = Cyprus; CZ = Czechoslovakia; DK = Denmark; NL = Netherlands; EC = Ecuador; EG = Egypt; EE = Estonia; ET = Ethiopia; FI = Finland; FR = France; GE = Georgia; DE = Germany; GR = Greece; GT = Guatemala; GU = Guam; HU = Hungary; IS = Iceland; IN = India; ID = Indonesia; IR = Iran; IQ = Iraq; IL = Israel; IE = Ireland; IT = Itay; JP = Japan; KE = Kenya; KR = South Korea; KW = Kuwait ; LV = Latvia; LB = Lebanon; LT = Lithuania; LU = Luxembourg; MK= Macedonia; MG = Malagasy Republic; MT = Malta; MY = Malaya; MX = Mexico; MN = Mongolia; NA = Namibia; NZ = New Zealand; NG = Nigeria; NO = Norway; PK = Pakistan; PA = Panama; PE = Peru; PH = Philippines; PL = Poland; PT = Portugal; PR = Puerto Rico; RO = Romania; RU = Russia; SA = Saudi Arabia; SN = Senegal; CS = Serbia and Montenegro; SK = Slovakia; ZA = South Africa; ES = Spain; LK = Sri Lanka; SE = Sweden; CH = Swiss Confederation; SY = Syria; TW = Taiwan; TH = Thailand; TN = Tunisia; TR = Turkey; UG = Uganda; UA = Ukraine; UY = Uruguay; VE = Venezuela; ZW = Zimbabwe

 

 

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